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THE 



SCHOOL ROOM GUIDE 



TO 



METHODS OF TEACHING 



AND 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



/ 



BY 



E? V. DE GRAFF, A. M., 

Conductor of Teachers'' Institutes. 



Seventieth Edition, Entirely Rewritten. "With 2S 
, s-... Illustrations. 



'y 



..Q 



3 







[ Ah-H 2 1890 



^Ai 



)H. 



SYRACUSE, I^. Y. : 

C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER. 



1890. 



Copyrisrht, 1677, 1884, by E. V. DbGraff ; 1890, by C. W. Bardbjsn. 



LB/55T 
••DV 



PREFACE TO THE SEVENTIETH EDITION. 



For the fourth time an entirely new set of plates has 
been made for this volume. The advantage of such 
large sale as to make this possible is nowhere more mani- 
fest than in a book of methods. Whatever it may have 
been in the past, the teaching of to-day is progressive, 
and the methods of 1877 are not altogether the methods 
of 1890. Particularly in Drawing and in Penmanship 
has such advance been made that it seemed necessary 
to have those chapters entirely rewritten. For the 
former a condensation has been made of the illustrated 
articles in the ScJiool Bulletmhj Mrs. Mary Dana Hicks, 
joint-author of the series of drawing now in most gen- 
eral use. For the latter a most valuable illustrated 
chapter has been prepared by Chas. E. Wells, director 
of penmanship in the schools of Syracuse and of the 
Chautauqua Assembly. 

Except in these two chapters, the changes are mainly 

of arrangement. The book was originally made up of 

the author's notes as an institute conductor, and hence 

contained many repetitions. In this edition all that 

was anywhere said on a particular topic has been 

(ill) 



IT PREFACE. 

brought together, and by the insertion of topical side 
lines has been made easy of reference. 

But as a whole the book is still as the author origin- 
ally wrote it. What there is in Prof. De Graff's method 
of presentation that so reaches and holds the young 
teacher, it might be hard to say; but superintendents 
everywhere agree that where other books are bought 
and put away, the ^'School Koom Guide "is bought 
and kept on the desk, for daily use. 

There is probably not a county in the United States 
where this book is not known and valued. In this new 
edition, the responsibility for which has through the 
death of the author fallen upon the publisher, the latter 
hopes that all the features that were most worthy have 
been retained, while the additions and changes will 
make it still more available in the school-room. 

Syracuse, February 22, 1890. 



CONTENTS. 



READING 6 

I. Methods - 9 

Word Method 9 

Object Method 15 

Phonic Method- 15 

Phonetic Method 17 

Phonotypic Method 18 

Word-Building Method 18 

Look-and-8ay Method 18 

Sentence Method 19 

Drawing Method 21 

ABC Method 22 

II. Primary Reading 22 

III. Intermediate Reading 30 

PHONICS , 42 

SPELLING 45 

Oral Spelling 47 

Written Spelling 50 

Methods 53 

Exercises in Orthoepy 59 

PENMANSHIP 62 

I. General Principles 65 

II. Practical Exercises 69 

FORM STUDY AND DRAWING 90 

I. General Principles 90 

The New York State Syllabus 91 

II. Practical Exercises 93 

LANGUAGE 103 

Objects as a Whole -.103 

Parts of Objects 105 

(V) 



VI CONTENTS. 

Words as Objects of Observation. 107 

Comparison of Objects 110 

Lesson on General Terms 113 

The Parts of Speech 115 

Suggestive Abstracts 126 

Synonyms. 131 

Mistakes and Vulgarisms 132 

Topics for Brief Talks.. .135 

Questions for Debate 136 

Subjects for Compositions 137 

GRAMMAR 140 

LETTER-WRITING 153 

Importance of Letter- Writing 153 

Startling Statistics as to Dead Letters 154 

I. Mechanical Structure 155 

First Attempts .155 

Materials ..156 

The Heading 157 

Models 158 

TJie Introduction. 159 

Name and Title 160 

Salutation 162 

In Writing to Women : 165 

Models -166 

The Body of the Letter. 167 

Where Begun 167 

Paragraphing .167 

The Conclusion 169 

Signature _ .170 

Women's Signatures 170 

Models 170 

Superscription _ 173 

Models 174 

Topical Review 175 

Specific Hints. 176 

II. The Style of the Letter. 178 

Bryant's Advice 179 



CONTENTS. . Vll 

III. Substance of the Letter 180 

What to write .._181 

When to write _ - 183 

When to delay 183 

Bitter Words 184 

ARITHMETIC - .-186 

I. The Fundamental Rules .187 

II. Fractions ..310 

III. General Remarks 219 

GEOGRAPHY ..223 

I. First Steps 223 

II. Advanced Geography.'^. 234 

Study of North America 236 

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY ....247 

I. Elements of Climate 248 

II. The General Law 250 

III. Modifications 252 

HISTORY.. ....266 

OBJECT LESSONS ....: ..273 

I. Without Apparatus 276 

II. With Apparatus .287 

SCHOOL MANAGEMENT ....292 

I. Organization 292 

The First Day .293 

A Course of Study .295 

II. School Government... 301 

The First Requisite .301 

Do not Anticipate Offences 302 

A Cheerful School 303 

Corporal Punishment 304 

Elements of the True Teacher ...307 

Hints on the Correction of Special Offences .308 

Communication 308 

Loud Study 309 

Laughing 309 

Moving Noisily 309 

Questions during Recitation 309 



Vlll CONTENTS. 

Writing Notes 309 

Uncleanliness 310 

Disorder 310 

Tattling 310 

Quarrelling 310 

Untruthfulness ..310 

III. Conduct of Recitations. 311 

General Suggestions 312 

Dr. Harris's Description 319 

Methods of Instruction 323 

Text-Book.. ..323 

Oral ...325 

The Two Combined 325 

Socratic .327 

Topical ...327 

Discussion ._ 328 

Lecture , 329 

Laws of Questioning 331 

Special Hints to Young Teachers 333 

AWORDIN CONCLUSION .338 

To Superintendents 338 

To Teachers.--. ...339 



READING. 



I. METHODS. 

That teachers may distinguish good methods we begin 
with descriptions of the following: Some Method of 
are old^ long, unnatural and tedious, afford- reading^ 
ing little but monotony to stimulate the child^s desire 
to learn. Others are shorter, but none the less un- 
natural and arbitrary. Some are unphilosophical, and 
leave no cause for surprise that so many children floun- 
der at the very threshold of knowledge, the very place 
that should be made most attractive. 

1. The Word Method. 

2. The Object Method. 

3. The Phonetic Method. 

4. The Phonotypic Method. 

5. The Wood-building Method. 

6. The Look-and-sa^y Method. 

7. The Sentence Method. 

8. The Drawing Method. 

9. The A b c or Alphabetic Method. 

How TO Teach Reading by the Word Method. 

Directions. 

1. Call the attention of the children to some object. 

2. Ask questions about the object. 

3. Talk to the children about the object. 
B (9) 



10 READIIs'G. 

4. Ask the children to give the name of the object. 

5. Show a picture of the object. 

6. Make a drawing on the board of the object. 

7. Print and write the word on the board. 

8. Let the pupils copy the word on their slates. 

9. Group words into phrases. 

10. Group words into sentences. 

11. After the pupils learn one sentence, use it in 
making other sentences. 

12. Select words that are the names of familiar 
objects. 

Cautions. 

1. Present only two or three new words for each lesson. 

2. Teach the children to recognize words as signs of 
ideas. 

3. At first give no attention to elements of which 
words are composed; as the elementary sounds, and 
letters. 

4. Attempt no spelling of any of the words. 

Results. 

1. Knowledge. 

2. Naturalness of expression. 

3. Fluency. 

In the earliest stages of the course, teaching precedes 
Remarks. learning ; the child^s steps are guided and 
upheld by the teacher; his way is made clear for him, 
and his difficulties are anticipated. It is essential that 
the child shall have a liking for the work in which he is 
engaged. It is the spirit of the teacher rather than 
his methods that ensures success in teaching little ones 
to read. 



THE WORD METHOD. 11 

In the word method^ we begin by teaching words, 
leading the children to recognize them as wholes. This 
method is now used extensively; it was the method used 
by the race in developing the language. Nature is the 
guide of both parents and children. There is a fitness 
in her means that secures, in the most simple way, the 
most desirable ends. We have become artificial, me- 
chanical in teaching; we need to retrace our steps and 
imitate nature's process. 

Nature begins with objects — the idea first, its signs 
second, and the ability to represent the idea of foUow 

Nature's 

its signs third — the natural order of learning Plan, 
language, and the natural order of using it, are made 
to correspond. The word soon becomes familiar to the 
child. It is the object of thought. 

The word method begins with words, not with letters. 
In the word '' hat '^ it does not teach first the letters 
h, a, t, and say "hat " ; but it takes the word and calls 
it " Imt" without any reference to the fact that the 
printed word is made up of letters. 

The thing before the sign is the rule in teaching. 
Words that are not signs of things can be illus- The thing 
trated by exam]oles: for instance, white, by sign, 
showing the color ; runSy by showing the act ; on, by 
showing the poBition, etc. By this method it will take 
no more time to teach the word, its elementary sounds, 
letters and spelling, than the letters alone by the old 
way of teaching the letters first. 

Let the teacher aim to get the children to talk freely. 
If possible, present a real object to the class: Hints, 

a picture, or a drawing. Ask questions to draw out 



12 READING. 

what the children know of the object. You now have 
excited an interest; show the class the word; write or 
print the word under the drawing; tell the children that 
the word is a picture of the real object; require the 
children to pronounce it several times; print the word 
in several places on the board; and require the children 
to pronounce it in concert. 

In like manner teach quality words^ for example, 
*^red" ; show an object which is red, and print on the 
board the words, "a red cup,^^ and request pupils to 
read the phrase. That the plan of teaching children 
to read by the word method may be made more clearly 
understood and readily applied, the following directions 
are given: 

Let the teacher begin by a familiar conversation with 
How to the children about some object. It is of lit- 

^^^°' tie importance what words are taught first, 

if the words are short ones and familiar to the children 
by use in conversation, and the object which the words 
represent and the pictures can be readily shown. The 
object of the talk and questions should be to put the 
child in conscious possession of a knowledge of the thing, 
or of what the word represents. 

When the child has this knowledge, and not before, 
the teacher may show him the sign, i. e., the word. 

As soon as the word is presented the child should 
print it on his slate. A little practice will enable the 
child to print it rapidly. The printing will fix the word 
in the mind. 

In many schools the children are taught from the first 
to write the word; not permitted to print it, for the 



WORDS THE OBJECTS OF THOUGHT. 13 

reason that in after life we use script, not the printed 
forms. 

If the pupils are receiving, as they should be, daily- 
lessons in writing, they will soon be able to copy the 
sentence from the board on the slates. 

This exercise is important not only on account of the 
practice in writing which it affords, but for giving the 
children something attractive and useful to do, and 
preventing the mischief that comes from idle hands. 
The teacher should rule one side of the slate with some 
sharp instrument, and the children should be encouraged 
to do the work neatly and correctly. 

The child knows nothing of vowels, consonants and 
articulation; nothing about letters, when he Letters and 
looks upon the printed page. sounds. 

The word, the word ! This is the object of thought. 
The printed word is the object presented to the mind 
of the child. It is presented through the eye. It is 
known by its form; the child learns to recognize the 
words by their forms, as it learns to recognize other 
objects. The names of letters are no guides to the 
correct pronunciation of words, and they can be of no 
possible service to the children in learning to read. 

After the children have made considerable progress 
in reading words, the teacher may call their attention 
to the elementary sounds of which the words are com- 
posed. 

Some teachers combine the Word and Phonic Methods, 
and after the word is learned by sight, teach word and 
the elementary sounds. This is not neces- Methods 
sary to this plan of teaching reading, and ^^^ "^^ 
if the teacher thinks best may be omitted. 



14 READING. 

Children have been taught to read in a very few weeks 
by this plan, and we would encourage primary teachers 
to try it. It is useful in cultivating distinctness in 
articulation, and in aiding the children to acquire new 
words. 

When the pupils have been made familiar with the 
The names words that have been taught by sight, so as 
of letters. readily to pronounce them, and give their 
elementary sounds, the teacher may call the attention 
of the children to the names of their letters; but as a 
rule the children will learn the names of the letters soon 
enough, without any help from the teacher. 

As soon as the letters are taught, by all means show 
their use by putting them together and making the 
word; use the same letters in forming new words. 

There is but little variance between the Object Method 
and the Word Method. The introductory part is the 
same, and both should be combined in order to interest 
the children. AVhole words should be presented, and 
the pupils required to pronounce them, without spell- 
ing, by sight. Subsequently the analysis of these words 
into sounds and letters may be taught. 

First, teach words that are the names of things; then 
words representing the names of qualities and actions. 
The little connective words and those that are used as 
substitutes for other words, should not be taught until 
they are needed in the construction of phrases and 
sentences. 

We will briefly refer to other methods used in teach- 
ing children to read. 



the object al!^^d the phonic methods. 15 

The Object Method. 

The children's attention is first directed to some 
object with which they are familiar by sight, name and 
use. 

The teacher shows the object to the children, and the 
name is given by the children. If they cannot give the 
name, the teacher tells them. The teacher presents a 
picture of the object, or makes a drawing of it upon 
the board; then the name is plainly written under the 
drawing. The pupils are now taught to distinguish 
from one another the object, the picture of it, and the 
word rej^resenting it. 

The following order should be observed in teaching 
beginners to read by the Object Method, as steps in 
used by N. A. Calkins, Assistant Superin- Method, 
tendent of Schools in New York city. 

First Step. — Teach whole words by sight that are 
already known by hearing, as signs of objects, qualities, 
and actions. 

Second Step. — Teach the analysis of the word by its 
elementary sounds. 

Third Step. — Teach the analysis of the word by the 
names of its letters, and their order in spelling it. 

Fourth Step. — Require the pupils to pronounce the 
word; sound it; spell it. 

Fifth Step. — Group words into phrases and sentences. 

The children will learn new words by comparing the 
known words with the unknown. 

The Phonic Method. 
Every intelligent mind will welcome any means by 
which loose and bad habits of enunciation may be cast 
off, and correct ones formed in their stead. 



16 READING. 

Children who have been taught and accustomed to 
say J2idg)mmt iov judgment, read'n for reading, an for 
and, ?miss for 7nusf, parent for parent, pass for pass, 
will not be likely, by a single effort, to set their speech 
right. By well directed and persevering effort they can 
do it; with proper guidance and encouragement they 
will do it. A thorough knowledge of the elementary 
sounds is essential to success in the Phonic Method. 
It must be made a careful study and the teacher should 
master it. 

The Phonic Method consists in making the learner 
acquainted with the powers of the letters, so that when 
words are before him, he may, by uttering the sound 
of each letter in succession, construct for himself the 
sound of the word. Such a method says John Gill, of 
the Normal College, Cheltenham, it is impossible to 
have in a language like the English. A purely phonic 
method is possible only where the number of letters and 
elementary sounds correspond, where the same letter 
always represents the same sound, and where, in the 
spelling of words, the numbers of letters and of sounds 
agree. But these conditions in English are impossible. 
The letters are but five-eights of the elementary sounds; 
one letter often represents two or more sounds; some 
sounds are represented by more than one letter, and 
often letters are found not sounded at all. 

The principal advantage of this method is, that it 
puts into the hands of the children a key by which they 
may be able to hel23 themselves. The elementary sounds 
must be known before the children can take a single 
step in advance, except as he is assisted by the teacher. 



THE PHON^ETIC METHOD. 17 

The best results have been gained by the primary 
teachers in using the Phonic Method as auxiliary to the 
Word Method, but not as a substitute for it. The word 
must be the unit of thought; it is the natural way to 
begin with the units of language, which are words. 
Language deals with thoughts; words are symbols of 
thought. 

Another advantage is that it teaches the children 
from the beginning to enunciate distinctly; many other 
advantages are gained by combining the Word and 
Phonic Methods. 

Letters are elements of the forms of words; simple 
sounds are the elements of the sounds of words; neither 
of these elements are units in language. The child 
must know the sounds and the names of the letters; 
through these aids it may be able to help itself. This 
process, however, is not adapted to the child, until it 
has learned some words as wholes, as units of language, 
as the representations of thoughts. 

With all plans that have been considered, let the 
teachers bear in mind that children can never learn to 
read with any degree of ease until they are able to call 
instantly the words in the sentence without stopping to 
analyze them. 

By the method suggested, children are enabled to 
read with more interest and expression in a far shorter 
time than by the plans heretofore^^enerally pursued. 

The Phonetic Method. 

The Phonic and Phonetic Methods are distinct; the 
phonetic method provides signs to represent all the 
sounds of the language, using the common letters each 



18 READING. 

to denote but one sound of that letter, and providing 
slight modifications of these letters to denote other 
sounds. The method is used with success in those 
schools provided with Leigh^s Phonetic Reader. 

The Phonotypic Method. 

This is another form of the Phonic Method, providing 
a character or letter for each sound in the language. 

The pupil is required to learn forty or more letters in 
place of twenty-six. 

There are those who claim that pupils will learn both 
methods, and become able to read better thereby in a 
given time than they usually do when taught entirely 
from the common print. 

This method may be used with success; but, as the 
schools are not provided with books on the Phonotypic 
plan, we will not enlarge upon it. 

The Word-Buildii^g Method. 

The plan here is to begin with words of one letter as 
A, I, 0, and gradually form new words by prefixing or 
affixing single letters. The child is taught to pronounce 
first the word, then the letters that form it. Separate 
letters of the alphabet and spelling are taught by asking 
questions similar to the following: 

" What letter is placed after a to form an 9 " 

" What after an to form aiid ? " 

^' What before and to form land?" 

The Look-and-Say Method. 

By this method after the children have mastered the 
alphabet, all words are read without spelling. 



THE SENTEKCE METHOD. 19 

Attention is directed to each word as a whole, and its 
sound associated with it as a whole. 

In no case is the learner allowed to spell a word that 
he may afterwards recognize and pronounce it. 

The following advantages are claimed in favor of this 
method : 

First. — For mastering the word by the eye. 

Second. — For recognizing the word in the sign, and 
for acquiring practical acquaintance with the number 
of letters and syllables. 

Third. — For suitability to the circumstances of com- 
mon schools. 

The above reasons must commend this method to 
many teachers who have not received special training. 
It best meets the requirements of class instruction. In 
the class, the aim is to bring out the energies of all. 
This is done through emulation and self-respect. 

Now when spelling is permitted, a child has little in- 
ducement to exert himself to retain a word once seen; 
but let spelling be forbidden, let the remembrance of 
the word be thrown on the eye, and emulation will 
stimulate some to retain it, and to give it when called 
upon; and self-respect will be appealed to in the others, 
not to require always to be told by a sharper companion. 
It is a method which requires no special preparation 
like the phonic, and therefore may be entrusted to an 
inexperienced teacher. 

The Sektekce Method. 
In this method the teacher does not begin with the 
letters, nor with separate words, but with words in com- 
bination, that express a thought. Using this combina- 



20 READIi^-G. 

tion of words as a unit, the separate words are learned, 
as the separate letters are learned by the Word Method, 
that is, without special effort and almost, if not quite, 
unconsciously. 

In teaching by this method let it be the aim of the 
teacher, to teach not so much separate sounds, letters 
and words, as the proper expression of thought. 

The letters and words must be known, but as they 
will necessarily become known by this method without 
much special teaching, they are regarded and treated as 
of secondary importance for the time being. 

The attention of the children should be directed to 
the thought. To this end real objects and facts are at 
first employed to appeal to the senses and to demand of 
the child words to give the thought oral expression. 

In learning to talk, children acquire ideas from ob- 
jects, and then seek language to express them, it re- 
quires a combination of words to express a thought, or 
to give birth to a new idea or thought. 

The advantages claimed for this method over others 
are: 

First. — It is a natural way — teaching the child to 
read very much as he learned to talk. 

Second. — The attention of the child is directed to the 
expression of the thought ; hence he reads easily and 
naturally. 

Third. — It makes the child thoughtful, and hence 
cultivates his intelligence. 

This method was first systematically used in the 
schools of Binghamton, N". Y., and is fully explained in 
*'The Sentence Method of Teaching Reading," by G-. L. 



THE DRAWING METHOD. 21 

Farnham, former Superintendent of Schools, price 50 
cents. 

The Drawing Method. 

As all words are made up of the letters of the alpha- 
bet, and differ from each other only in the order and 
number of letters, the first step in teaching reading, 
whatever may have been the subsequent method, has 
been to teach the children these characters. 

Many have been the devices to accomplish this, but 
this method we will present as one of the most success- 
ful. It is the Drawing Method; that is teaching the 
child first to draw the letter, and then learn its name. 

The process combines from the first the two great 
instruments of teaching and reproducing — the former 
giving knowledge, and the latter testing it and giving 
skill. 

Since curiosity, which is so strong in the child, seeks 
its gratification in finding new forms, this method of 
drawing can be used as a means of training his eye to 
quickness and accuracy of observation. Lessons should 
be given upon straight, curved and crooked lines, that 
the children may know what is meant by the terms used. 

By actually drawing and naming the parts of a letter 
its form and name as a whole may be easily impressed 
on the memory of the pupil. In this manner the learn- 
ing of the alphabet, instead of being a spiritless task, 
as it has too often proved, is exceedingly attractive to 
the child and becomes a valuable aid in cultivating the 
sense of sight. 

This method may be used with a fair degree of suc- 
cess in ungraded schools. 



22 READII^G. 

The Alphabet, or A B C Method. 

The children by this method, are taught the names 
of the letters, and they begin to spell words at first. 
This attempts learning to read by learning to spell. 
Spelling may be learned through reading, but reading 
through spelling never. The attempt to combine two 
things in one lesson, by diverting the learner^s attention, 
interferes with his progress in recognizing the words. 

This method was universally used years ago, and even 
now is used in many of the ungraded schools. In the 
best schools, the alphabetic method is superseded by 
some of the modern ways. It is an imperfect method 
in that the letters do not guide to the pronunciation of 
the word. 

Take the word mat ; by the same method, the name 
of the first letter is €7n ; the second letter is e, and the 
third tee J — pronounced em a tee; by the phonic it 
becomes mat. 

This method produces halting, stumbling readers, it 
lays the foundation for mechanical, unintelligible read- 
ing, and it is now abandoned by all good teachers. 

II. PEIMAEY EEADING. 

Give special attention to the primary classes in read- 
ing ; if a child is not taiight to read ivell dtiring his first 
two years in school, he will prohaily he a poor reader 
through life. 

Directions. 
1. Train the pupils to pronounce the words readily at 
sight. 



PKIMAKY READIN^G. 23 

(a) Print or write the words on the board in 
columns; pupils to pronounce them at sight. 

(b) Write difficult words on the board, and sylla- 
bicate them; mark the accented syllables- 
pupils to pronounce them. 

(c) Eequire the pupils to pronounce the words 
• forward; reverse. 

(d) Eequire the pupils to bring in a portion or 
all of the reading lesson upon the slate; pupils 
read the lesson from the slate. 

(e) Alternate. 

Ccmtio7is. 

1. Present to the pupils only one difficulty at a time. 

2. Never permit the pupils to spell words in reading. 

3. Insist upon correct articulation and pronunciation. 

If the pupils in the first lessons of reading are taught 
correctly, they will not spell words audibly. Remarks. 

Many of the common faults in reading may be traced 
to the improper methods in use during the first lessons 
in this subject. Bad habits at this period usually cling 
to the pupils during all their school days, and often 
seriously affect their entire future progress. 

The first lessons in reading are of the greatest impor- 
tance, and they should be given in a proper manner. 

To do this successfully there must be a system in the 
plans pursued. 

The pupils must be familiar with the words of the 
lesson, so that they can readily pronounce Reading 
them at sight. ^^"^'• 

The teacher should introduce a short preliminary 
exercise, for calling the words at sight, as follows: 



24 READING. 

Teacher and children alternating one word each; boys 
and girls alternating one word each ; careless pupils 
alternating with class; each pupil reading a line as rap- 
idly as possible. 

In no instance should the teacher let a pupil stop to 
spell a word. The plan is in violation of the funda- 
mental laws of teaching. It attempts to compel thb 
child to do two things at the same time, and to do both 
in an unnatural manner, viz. : to learn reading and 
spelling simultaneousl}^, and reading through spelling. 

Reading has to deal with sounds and signs of thoughts. 
Spelling rests on a habit of the eye, which is best ac- 
quired by writing. 

In attempting to teach reading through spelling the 
effort distracts the attention from the thought; reading 
furnishes facilities for teaching spelling ; but spelling 
does not furnish a suitable means for teaching reading. 
If spelling is permitted, a love of reading is not enkin- 
dled; good readers are not produced. 

The teacher should be familiar with the sounds of the 
Phonics. letters, and require the pupils to practise on 
them two or three minutes daily. Let it be a lively 
exercise, and insist upon clear, distinct articulation. 
Attend to one difficult point at a time ; see that the 
pupils understand it and are able to reproduce whatever 
you teach them. 

Further Directions. 

1. Train the pupils to read in natural tones. 

(a) Request the pupil to look off the book and 

tell what he reads. 
(h) Select a good reader; request pupils to imitate. 



MAKE HASTE SLOWLY. 25 

(c) Teacher illustrates how a sentence should be 
read. 

2. The teacher should illustrate and define difficult 
words. 

(a) Illustrate by objects, pictures, drawings and 
diagrams, 

3. No definitions should be given of those words 
whose meaning can be inferred from the context. 

4. Every piece should be carefully studied before it 
is read aloud. 

Reading should not be a mere mechanical exercise. 
Remarks. The end of reading is not to give vocal utter- 
ance to a succession of words, but to give expression to 
thought and feeling. 

Reading is the most important subject taught in 
school. It is especially important that it be thoroughly 
taught in primary classes. The ^^ sing-song drawl ^^ 
and ^' nasal twang," which so often prevail in the school- 
room, should be avoided. 

Almost all children can be taught to read well; they 
imitate, unconsciously and naturally, the voices of their 
playmates. 

Many of the teachers are too ambitious in one direc- 
tion : that is, to promote pupils to higher r^^Q difficult 
books than they are qualified to comprehend, selections. 

This is a great mistake. Perhaps three-fifths of the 
pupils of our country are reading in books which they 
do not understand, or in which they take no interest. 
This is one of the principal causes of mechanical read- 
ing; through this error in judgment the pupils have 
acquired a drawling way, a lifeless, mechanical style. 



26 KEADIifG. 

I am glad to admit that a reformation has begun in 
Refoi-mation ^^^^^ dej^artment of instruction, but it will 
needed. need the constant and varied efforts of 

teachers and parents for years in order to overcome the 
effects that have already resulted from past negligence. 

Let the teacher select (from some book or magazine) 
Suggestions, a story which he will be sure shall interest 
the pupils. 

Let him give the book containing it to a pupil, asking 
him to read the story over a few times, to become 
familiar with it; and at or near the close of school, let 
the pupil read it aloud to his schoolmates. 

As he reads, do not discourage him by frequent inter- 
ruptions, but occasionally, when he relapses into a drawl, 
repeat the passage, kindly, in a better way, and ask him 
to notice and imitate your manner. 

When he has finished, read to them yourself some 
other good story, and let your style be worthy of imita- 
;tion. 

Let the standing of good reading be its resemblance 
Reading *^ good Conversation, The pupils may be 
sentences. ]g(j ^q attend to the thoughts expressed, by 
requiring them to find out what the sentences tell with- 
out reading them aloud. The teacher may aid them by 
proceeding in a manner similar to the following: Re- 
quest the class to study the first sentence, and each 
member to raise a hand when able to tell what the sen- 
tence is about. Call upon different pupils to state, in 
their own language, what the sentence tells; in this way 
they will readily learn to read with easy conversational 
tones. 



THE TEACHER SHOULD BE A GOOD READER. 27 

Special care should be taken in this step to train 
pupils in habits of clearness and distinctness 
of enunciation; also to read in an easy, speak- Sluncfation. 
ing voice. Overcome the faults in reading 
by taking up one kind at a time, and continue the prac- 
tice until the pupils clearly perceive the fault and take 
proper means to correct it. 

As a requisite essential to success, the teacher of read- 
ing should be a good reader. With proper 

. . The teacher 

management it is a very easy matter to make should be a 
children read well, and even the teacher who 
is a tolerable reader may teach pupils to read. That 
children have learned to read under such teachers I am 
willing to admit, because the fact is evident; but that 
they have been taught by their masters I do not admit, 
for it is impossible for any person to teach well what he 
does not understand. 

If a child has sometimes learned to read under an in- 
competent instructor, it has been, not because of the 
teacher, but in spite of him; and the question is, not 
how much he has learned, but how much would he have 
learned had the teacher been qualified to teach him. 

The young pupil's knowledge of the meaning of words 
is limited. One object of reading is to in- Difficult 
crease the knowledge of words. No defini- words. 
tion should be given of those words whose meaning can 
be inferred from the context, (see page 24). Kecourse 
should be had to a dictionary only when the pupil can- 
not think out the meaning for himself. 

The child learns the meaning of words by hearing 
them used — seldom by formal definition. 



28 READIN^G. 

The teacher may impress the idea by resorting to ob- 
jects, this is the natural way. Sometimes pictures may 
be at hand to throw light upon the word; again, a draw- 
ing may be given at the board to illustrate the meaning 
of the word. 

In no case should a definition be committed to mem- 
Defining ory and mechanically recited. The meaning 
words. should be inferred from the context, and the 

pupil requested to use the word correctly in a short 
sentence. 

Let the pupil tell what the word means in his own 
language. 

A definition is a general truth, a deduction; children 
should be taught primary truths, and, as their reason 
develops, deduce the definitions, rules and principles. 
Develop correct ideas, then give definitions. We must 
not encourage teachers to require pupils to commit the 
definitions to memory in the primary reading books. 
But we should insist that the pupils understand the 
meaning of the words used. 

Teachers sometimes instruct pupils to stop and count 
"Mind the ^^one'^ at a comma, ^^one, two,'^ at a semi- 
pauses." colon, etc. This leads to a mechanical, un- 
natural style of reading. First attend to the reading of 
sentences, and lead the pupils to see how the pauses aid 
in understanding the meaning. Do not teach reading 
as if attention to ^'pauses" were the chief object to be 
attained. 

Reciting definitions of pauses is useless and leads to 
waste of time. Teach the use of the pauses, instead of 
the definition of them. A few teachers pay no attention 



QUALITIES OF THE VOICE. 29 

to the explanation of the words, but turn their attention 
almost entirely to the names and the pronunciation; 
important points, to be sure, but by no means the life- 
giving elements of good reading. 

Pure. — This is a clear, full and cheerful tone. It is 
the language of common conversation. Tone qualities. 

Rotund. — This is the pure tone, rounded, deepened and 
intensified. It is the language of sublimity, grandeur, 
awe, reverence. 

Aspirate. — This is whispered utterance. It is the 
language of hate, fear, secresy. 

Guttural. — This is the sepulchral tone and has its 
resonance in the throat. It is the language of hate, 
rage, contempt. 

Pectoral. — This is low, pure tone. It is the language 
of deep feeling, sorrow. 

Falsetto. — This is a very high tone. It is the lan- 
guage of irritability, etc. 

A particular stress of voice given to certain words, or 
parts of a discourse, or a distinctive utter- Emphasis, 
ance of words specially significant, is called emphasis. 

A new idea or fact, one now presented for the first 
time, constitutes the emphatic word or words. 

That which presents no new or dominant fact or 
thought is unemphatic, as clauses of repetition, antici- 
pation, sequence, subordination, knowledge beforehand. 

Do not require children to commit the rules to mem- 
ory in reading. They are hindrances instead j^^^^g j^ 
of helps. If the teachers know how to read, reading, 
those aids in which many school-books abound are worse 
than useless, because positively injurious. 



30 READING. 

The competent teacher needs but two rules by which 
to be guided in teaching the pupils to read : 

First. — Make the pupils understand what is to be read. 

Second. — Require them to read naturally. 

To expect a child to read what it does not understand 
is unreasonable, and yet nothing is more common. It 
is idle to put marks, rules and directions, whether by 
words or characters, into books intended to be read by 
children, for the reason that they are seldom or never 
used. 

The teacher should carefully study the reading lesson; 
should be familiar with the pronunciation of 
er's prep- every word, including its literal and its re- 
ceived meaning. He should give the pupils 
the history of the author and some of his prominent 
characteristics, — this will add to the interest. He 
should awaken thought in the minds of the pupils, — 
this will secure interest. It matters not how simple the 
lesson may be, previous preparation is indispensable. 
Previous study will add new power and generate better 
methods, by means of which success will be insured. 
The teacher will become independent, self-reliant, and 
a ^^^aw unto himself. ^^ 

III. INTERMEDIATE READING. 

Directions. 

1. Teach and train the pupils to understand: 
(a) The prominent objects mentioned; 
{h) The prominent facts mentioned concerning 
the object; 



INTEKMEDIATE READII?"G. 31 

(c) What they read, so as to be able to tell the 
story, or the principal facts in the lesson; 

(d) The connected thought, so as to express it 
orally and written. 

Caution. 

1. Attend to one subject of criticism at a time, and 
require pupils to correct errors. 

2. Practise on one sentence at a time. 

3. See that all the pupils understand the thought, and 
are able to express it. 

4. Examine the subject carefully before reading. 

EesuUs. 
The pupils in the Intermediate Classes in Eeading 
should be able: — 

1. To pronounce the words accurately. 

2. To define the words. 

3. To understand the subject-matter. 

4. To explain the language. 

5. To account for marks of punctuation. 

6. To point out what is true, beautiful and good in 
the sentiment. 

7. To show the manner of delivery, and give reason 
for it. 

The number of those who can be properly called good 
readers in our schools, is small: but how 
large is the number who can read quite in- 
differently, or very poorly. 

As a general thing it must be admitted that reading 
has not been well taught in our schools. It has re- 
ceived formal attention and frequent inattention. Time 
enough is given to the exercise, but not enough attention. 



3^ READING. 

The elocutionary part of reading should receive but 
little attention in the intermediate classes. 

Anintellec- ^tt-,! -t t j. • • -j. 

tuaiex- With SO many pupils under your training, it 

cannot be expected that you will go into all 
the minutia of elocutionary drill. Your aim must be 
to teach well what you undertake to teach. You can- 
not even hope to make all your pupils accomplished elo- 
cutionists, but you can make them good and intelligent 
readers. When you find a pupil that takes to elocution 
it may be well to encourage it, but not to the neglect 
nor the expense of other subjects of instruction. It 
may be asked, what is good reading? I call that good 
reading when a person reads distinctly, giving the sense 
with such intonation and emphasis as to be pleasant to 
the hearer, and in such a manner as to be easily heard 
:and readily understood. 

Take, for example, the following beautiful selection, 
An iiiustra- and see how many pertinent questions may 
'^°" be asked in reference to it : 

Nelly. 

Nelly sat under the apple tree, 
And watched the shadows of leaves at play, 

And heard the hum of the honey bee, 
Gathering sweets through the sunny day. 

Nelly's brown hands in her lap were laid ; 

Her head inclined with a gentle grace ; 
A wandering squirrel was not afraid 

To stop and peer in her quiet face. 

Nelly was full of a pure delight, 

Born of the beauty of earth and sky, 
Of the wavering boughs, and the sunshine bright, 

And the snowy clouds that went sailing by. 



A MODEL LESSON. 33 

Nelly forgot that her dress was old, 
Her hands were rough and her feet were bare ; 

For round her the sunlight poured its gold, 
And her cheeks were kissed by the summer air. 

And the distant hills in their glory lay, 
And soft to her ear came the robin's call : 

'Twas sweet to live on that summer day, 
For the sndle of God was over all. 

And Nelly was learning the lesson sweet 

That when the spirit is full of care. 
And we long our father and God to meet. 

We may go to nature, and find him there. 

1. Where did Nelly sit? 

2. What two things did she do ? 

3. What is meant by the leaves at play ? 

4. What were the bees doing ? 

5. What is said of Nelly's hands ? 

6. What is said of her head ? 

7. What is said of the squirrel ? 

8. Of what was Nelly full ? 

9. What is meant by being full of pure delight ? 

10. Of what four things was it born ? 

11. What is meant by being born of these things ? 

12. What did Nelly forget? 

13. Why did she forget these things ? 

14. What is meant by the sunlight pouring its gold ? 

15. What is meant by kissed by the summer air ? 

16. What is said of the distant hills ? 

17. What is meant by the phrase " in their glory lay " ? 

18. What is said of the robin ? 

19. Why was it sweet to live on that summer day ? 

20. What lesson was Nelly learning ? 

21. What is the meaning of gathering ? Inclined? Peer? Boughs? Nature? 

22. Make sentences in which those words in some of their forms shall be 
used correctly. 

23. Write a short composition about Nelly. 

The piece is descriptive and should be so read as to 
give the hearer a clear idea of the scenes 
described. State each thing mentioned as 
though you were telling some person what you had seen. 



u 



KEADII^G. 



The frequent or occasional study of reading lessons 
in this manner will be attended with two advantages. 
The pupils will read them better, for they will have a 
sympathy for the author, and a more intelligent percep- 
tion of the meaning. 

The answering of the question will prove very ser- 
viceable, by unfolding the sense of the piece, and thus 
enabling one to read it more understandingly. It will 
produce thought, and whenever we produce thought we 
secure interest. 

In intermediate classes constant attention should be 
given to punctuation, accent, inflection, emphasis and 
correct pronunciation. 

Explanations of historical, biographical or scientific 
allusions, should be given bj the teacher and reviewed 
in subsequent recitation. Higher classes may be taught 
the rhetorical divisions. Thus: 

^ a. Letters. 
h. Dialogues. 

c. History. 

d. Essays. 

e. Orations, etc. 
a. Pastoral. 
l. Lyric. 

c. Epic. 

d. Dramatic. 
[e. Elegy. 

f 1. Humorous. 
B. Subject Matter. ■{ 2. Pathetic. 

1^ 3. Sublime. 



A. Composition. 



^1. Prose, < 



and 



2. Poetry. 



> 



ATTEND TO SPECIAL FAULTS. 35- 

f 1. Narrative. 
(7. Discourse. { 2. Descriptive. 

l^ 3. Didactic. 
No subject is of more importance than how to teach 
Reading understandingly. Good reading is General 
calculated to develop the mind, the body, and remarks, 
the imagination. Although so important, yet it is sadly 
neglected. 

Elocution is the art of speaking so as to be heard, so 
as to be felt, so as to impress. The first essential is to 
speak or read so as to be heard distinctly. Never speak 
above or below your natural voice; if you do so, the 
etiect will be lost. The three great rules that all should 
observe in reading or speaking are: ^'Be sure you have 
something to say; as well as you can say it; and stop 
when you are done.^' Speak so that the listener may 
understand you; speak so as to be felt, hence be in 
earnest; if you do not feel what you say, you cannot 
expect your hearers to feel it. 

If you have a fault, attend to it, overcome it by prac- 
tice. Much time must be taken in correcting Attend to 
bad habits of reading, but you must take the faults, 
time. And whatever you do, be sure to teach the pupils 
to do it in the right way. If the teacher wishes to suc- 
ceed he must learn how intonation and articulation are 
to be taught. Before he can teach it he must learn it. 
It can only be acquired through study. 

Rules in books might as well be omitted ; correct- 
reading must be taught by example. The object of 
teaching reading is to make good readers. Before good 
reading and good speaking can be taught it is necessary 



36 READING. 

to learn how to articulate distinctly and pronounce cor- 
rectly. If you are careless in one single point, your 
pupils will be careless not only on that point but on 
others. 

In reading you must give each sound its true value. 
The requirements in reading are two-fold: 

First. — To express rightly what you read; and 

Seco7id. — To do this pleasantly and naturally. 

A perfect understanding of what you read is the 
foundation; you must understand the thoughts of the 
author and make the thoughts your own. 

It is the exception to find good readers in our schools; 
the reason is because pupils are not required to study 
the lesson as in other branches. 

Study gives force, meaning, beauty and power to the 
passage. After the pupils can speak distinctly, they 
should be taught to express the sense, to give the exact 
meaning. In no other way can this be taught than 
through study on the part of the pupils. They must 
read and thinh. 

Pupils should be taught how to stand, and they should 
not be allowed to utter a word until they as- 
sume a position to give full force to their 
utterance ; they should not be allowed to appear awk- 
ward. 

Do not allow your pupils to mumble words, smother 
sounds and destroy the sense of a passage. 

The position should be perfectly easy, natural and 
graceful; the posture should indicate the sentence to be 
spoken. Insist that your pupils always take an easy, 
graceful position in reading or speaking. 



MECHAKICAL READING. 3T 

It is important to know how to breathe properly. It 
is well to exercise the lungs before beginning 
to read. The power of the reader or speaker 
consists in having perfect control of his breathing, so as 
to utter his words in the proper and most effective man- 
ner. It is only when you have perfect control of the 
breathing that you can give full expression to words 
and sentences. 

Let me caution you against placing dependence upon 
rules of inflection of the voice given in read- 
ing books. All that you need is fully to 
understand the thought ; when you have the thought 
fully, you will know all about inflection of the voice. 
If a person cannot translate what he reads into his own 
language, he most assuredly does not understand it. If 
you cannot bring out in your own language the full 
meaning of the lesson, you are not the one to teach, and 
you should either adopt some other work, or go through 
a rigid course of training. 

A great deal of teaching in reading is a positive in- 
jury to schools, and all because the teacher does not 
know how to teach. ^^ Practice makes perfect; '^ rap- 
idity and correctness are attained only through frequent 
repetition. No one ever arrives at distinction by sitting 
with arms folded ; you must be willing to think, to- 
exercise, to labor. It is not an easy thing to become a 
good reader, it is acquired only through practice — con- 
tinual practice. There is no other way than through 
practice. 

The following rules are taken from ^^ Kidd^s Elocu- 
tion." They should be carefully studied and practised: 



38 READIi^G. 

First. — Understand well what is read. 

Second. — See to it that pupils never read without fulfilling the 
conditions of proper position and posture. 

Make them take the position God intended them to take; 
train, not teach; there is a difference between the two. 

Third. Insist upon frequent and natural breathing. Good 
breathing is essential to health. 

Fourth. — Reach the heart of the pupil. This is done by in- 
teresting them, by making them understand what they read. 

Fifth. — Cultivate a perfectly easy, distinct and natural voice, 
avoid all labored efforts; let the voice come out full. Let pro- 
nunciation be correct, inflection natural; give the best models, 
but never rules. Make pupils repeat the pronunciation of words 
they are in the habit of mis-pronouncing. Modulation and into- 
nation should be varied but always natural. 

Sixth.— YLdive your pupils speak with naturalness. If the sub- 
ject be understood any one will speak naturally. Train them to 
speak by the highest standard they possess. 

Seventh. — Be in earnest. If the pupil has not an earnest man- 
ner, it proves that he does not understand his subject. 

Teacher, whatever else you may teach, do not con- 
Necessary sider the reading exercise an unimportant 
conditions. ^^^^ Teach and train the pupils to be 
readers. It is the art of arts, and in it are the germs 
of growth and development. 

We read in the Bible at the eighth chapter of Nehe- 

miah, eighth verse, how they used to read in the olden 

times : 

•'So they read in the book in the law of God distinctly, and 
gave the sense, and caused them to understand the reading." 

There are three kinds of reading that are often con- 
founded; mechanical reading, intelligent reading, and 
intellectual reading. 

Mechanical reading, per se, is no reading at all; it is 
but a form of voice training. It may include pronun- 



INTELLECTUAL EEADING. 39 

ciatiou, articulation, enunciation, inflection, tone pause, 
harmony, rhythm, and emphasis. A child may learn 
every one of these, in a foreign language, — learn them 
to perfection, if he be well drilled in them by means of 
directions and imitation, and yet not understand one 
word of what he reads while he gives them. 

An intelligent reader is one who understands what he 
reads, who takes in the authors thought. There are 
various degrees of intelligeiit reading. One person 
takes in the meaning vaguely, another more clearly, 
another quite clearly and definitely. It is not possible 
for a young child to be more than an intelligent reader, 
but the power should come to him as he grows older. 
Yet how many adults there are that do never get beyond 
the child^s power of reading. Take, for instance, the 
well-informed man who never will be wise; he is emi- 
nently an intelligent reader, but there is no hope for 
him that he will ever become an intellectual reader. 

Intellectual reading is not only a taking in, clearly 
and definitely, of the author^s meaning, but it is also a 
ready recognition of the relation of that meaning, a 
prompt assimilation of it, and a consequent growth. 
This is the kind of reading that reigns in the student's 
den and the philosopher's study. That man who has 
the original power, or the acquired habit, — which is 
often more than an equivalent for the original power, — 
to grasp readily and clearly the meaning of what he 
reads, is always one whom all others envy. And yet 
this power, valuable beyond calculation, may be given 
to every child in our schools, if we can but find the 
right way to secure it for him. 



40 READING. 

The question then is : How shall we train our children 
so that they shall become not only intelligent but intel- 
lectual readers? — so that they shall become not only in- 
tellectual silent readers, but also accomplished oral 
readers ? 

By assigning to the lesson in voice-training all those 
exercises which pertain to voice-culture and 

Reading a . .,.,,. 

thought discipline of the organs, with drill m pro- 

nunciation and a consideration of emphasis 
and pauses, illustrated by mistakes taken from yester- 
day^s lesson and difficulties in to-day^s, we shall relieve 
the reading lesson proper of the necessity of taking note 
of all that machinery which produces effect, and leave 
the teacher and class time and opportunity to study the 
thought the passage contains, and to give it a free and 
natural expression. Let it be understood by the class 
as well as the teacher, that the reading lesson should be 
a clear, clean-cut process of thought carried on to ex- 
pression, and should not be interrupted by continued, 
trival and harrassing corrections. What is more pain- 
ful than to see a child rise in his class, full of the thought 
the passage contains, confident of his power to give it 
good expression, his eye a-kindle and his cheeks aglow, 
and then to see him suddenly brought to a blank stand- 
still by a dozen upraised hands and snapping fingers, 
because, forsooth, he has omitted an '' a/' a ^'the,'' or 
mis-called some simple word he knew quite well, or 
skipped some useless comma ? 

Where such practices are allowed, the reading lesson 
becomes a mere game in pronunciation, and a correct 
handling of the voice according to rules. Such games 
are good to make the children keen-sighted, quick- 



THE THOUGHT FIRST. 41 

tlioiighted, and correct; but their place is not in the 
reading-lesson, and if we keep them there we shall go on 
forever teaching only words, words, words. 

Let us have first the thought, then the expression, 
and last and least, mechanical defects. Better that the 
thought should be full-born, and clothed in garments 
with here and there a rent, than that it should be still- 
born and the garments Avithout a flaw. 

Ag in language the thought is the root of which the 
word is the blossom, so in reading, an understanding of 
the author's meaning is the root of which oral reading" 
is the blossom. If, then, we find our blossoms defect- 
ive, it behooves us to look to the condition of the roots. 

But what method will help us here? How can we^ 
make sure that a child understands what he reads ? 
Children imitate so easily, and habit counterfeits na- 
ture so closely, how can we be sure that we are not 
misled? Only by studying the lesson with children; 
only by having before every reading-lesson a language- 
lesson upon the subject-matter of the reading; only by 
compelling the children, by means of questions, to thinh, 
to reason, and to express : to express the thoughts of the 
lesson, first in their own words, and then in the words 
of the book; and, whenever the subject-matter may 
be, from any cause whatsoever, vague to the children^s^ 
minds, by illustrating it with objects, with pictures, — 
printed pictures, and outline pictures drawn upon the 
black-board, and with what the English training-schools 
call '* picturing out words." 



D 



PHONICS. 



Till recently this important subject had received but 
little attention in the public schools of the country. 
Why it was so long neglected, when it is such an im- 
portant element of expression, is a curious problem. 

The object of teaching this subject should be: — 

First. — To train the organs of hearing so that the 

children may readily distinguish the sounds heard in 

speaking and reading. 

Second, — To train the organs of hearing so that the 
pupils may learn to produce the sounds correctly in 
using language. 

To acquire an articulation which shall be at once 
accurate and tasteful, it is necessary: 

1. To obtain an exact knowledge of tlie elementary 
sounds of the language. 

2. To learn the appropriate place of these sounds. 

3. To aj^ply this knowledge constantly in conversing, 
reading and speaking, with a view to correct every 
deviation from propriety. 

A good articulation is not to be acquired in a day, 
nor from a few lessons. Practice should begin with 
the primer, and continue through the whole course of 
education; and even then there will remain room for 
improvement. 

(42) 



DIACRITICAL SIGNS. 43 

Great care sliould be taken in giving these lessons, 
that the class repeat each exercise until all the pupils 
can make every sound and combination that it contains, 
readily and perfectly. 

The teacher should make the sound, and then require 
the pupils to imitate them. The pupils should stand 
or sit erect, and use the natural tones of the voice. 
Only one or two sounds should be taken for a lesson. 

The exercise should not continue more than five 
minutes; it may be introduced in the reading or spell- 
ing exercise, or the whole school may join in it. 

Tell the children ''to open the mouth and move the 
lips," to speak distinctly and to enunciate every sound 
perfectly. Time should not be wasted in the endeavor 
to teach children definitions or descriptions of the vari- 
ous sounds of the letters. The chief aim should be to 
train the organs of hearing to acuteness, and the organs 
of speech to flexibility and accuracy. 

The pupils should be taught the correct sounds and 
the signification of the different marks. All dotation 
the vowels and many of the consonants have diacrfticai 
marks to distinguish their sounds. signs. 

After a sound is learned the teacher should write the 
letter on the board with its proper mark. The pupils 
should be required to copy and reproduce every exercise. 
Let the drill be thorough. 

Tell the pupils that when a short horizontal line — 
called the macron — is placed above the vowels it indicates 
the long sound, as a; that a short curved line with the 
curve downward — called a hreve — placed above the vowels 
indicates the short sound, as ^; that two dots placed 
above the vowels indicates the Italian sound, as ii, etc. 



44 PHONICS. 

AVe find few teachers who are able to give the sounds 
of the English language correctly, and many are unable 
to tell the kind of a mark or sign that indicate a certain 
sound. 

This subject requires study and practice. We need 
not exi^ect distinct speaking so long as we 
neglect the following suggestions: 

1. Train the organs of hearing to distinguish readily 
and accurately the different sounds of language. 

2. Train the organs of speech to produce these sounds 
with ease and accuracy. 

3. Train the pupils to the correction of faults of 
enunciation and pronunciation in reading and speaking. 

4. Train pupils in every lesson upon the elements. 

5. Master the analysis before you attemj^t to teach it. 

6. Let the drill be accurate. 



For full directions In teaching this important subject, the 
author refers to his book called ' ' Practical Phonics : A com- 
prehensive study of Pronunciation, forming a complete guide to 
the study of the Elementary Soimds of the English Language, and 
containing 3000 words of difficult pronunciation, with diacritical 
marks according to Webster's Dictionary." Price 75 cts. 



SPELLING. 



mTRODUCTION. 



It cannot be denied that the orthography of the Eng- 
lish language is difficult. In a general way there are no 
principles governing it; but few rules can be called to 
mind;, and these have so many exceptions that they 
are of little use. 

There are only three rules that I have found of prac- 
tical value: 

1. Monosyllables and words accented on the last 
syllable, ending in a single consonant, preceded by a 
single vowel, double the final consonant before an addi- 
tion beginning with a vowel. 

2. The diphthong ie is generally used after other con- 
sonants than c, which is followed by ei. 

3. Words ending in final y, preceded by a vowel, 
form their plurals by adding s. 

It will be seen at once that English spelling must be 
learned to a great extent arbitrarily; but industry and 
attention will enable any student to master it. 

Everybody knows how imperfectly the teaching of 
spelling accomplishes its purpose; yet there Results mi- 
ls no reason why any student should habitu- satisfactory. 
ually spell words badly. Any person may learn to spell, 

(45) 



46 



SPELLING. 



if in writing, whenever he shall come to a word which 
he does not certainly know how to spell, he will look 
for it in his dictionary and study its spelling and 
meaning. 

Too often the spelling is a mere " parrot exercise/^ 
Mechanical ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^ resnlts are rapidly lost as soon as 
spelling. i\^Q attention is given to something else. 

Inattention is a fruitful source of ill spelling. Time is 
wasted upon oral spelling, and bad habits are formed 
by spelling new words pupils do not understand. 

1 should connect spelling and reading with writing 
from the very outset. As soon as the child 
tion with Can pronouncc the alphabet on this plan he 
lea mg. ^^.^-^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^ Write it, and then as he ad- 

vances he must continue to write all the spelling lessons 
and as much of the reading lessons as time will admit. 
It is a rare thing to find children seven years old able 
to read a word of manuscript, — much less to write well. 
A little instruction given by the teacher each day upon 
this special study will aid in making the children good 
penmen. It is a very valuable help. 

During a certain year I pronounced the following 
words to twenty-one Institutes in the State of New 
York, viz.: 

accordion, melodeon, alpaca, 

beefsteak, billiards, caterpillar, 

diphtheria, harelip, surcingle, 

occurrence, inflammatory, succotash, 

tranquillity, exaggerate, vaccinate, 

centennial, brilliancy, collision, 

dissipate, tyrannical, valleys, 

lilies, numskull, primer, 

erysipelas. 



ORAL SPELLING. 



47 



The average spelling of the teachers, including public 
school, union school, academy and normal school teach- 
ers, was 63 per cent. One county stood at 85 per cent, 
and one at 20 per cent. Only three teachers from the 
twenty-one counties spelled all the words correctly. 

The following list has been given at institutes, with 
similar results: 



judgment, 

acknowledgement, 

bilious, 

vying, 

privilege, 

intercede, 

inflammation, 

mucilage, 



infringement, 

tranquillity, 

lilies, 

halos, 

licentiate, 

supersede, 

quizzical, 

millenium. 

Oral Spelling. 



abridgment, 

dissyllable, 

eying. 

inseparable, 

conscientious, 

sacrilegious, 

contrariwise, 

metallic. 



Spelling is the right formation of words with their 
proper letters. Oral spelling does not give value of oral 
the ability to write words correctly; but it ^^® ^^^' 
must not from this fact be deemed a useless exercise. 
Long used as a basis of learning to read, and still clung 
to by many, there must be something in it. It makes 
words that otherwise would have been altogether strange, 
familiar to the ear and sufficiently distinguishable by 
the eye to enable the learner to recognize them again 
when met with in his reading lessons. It finds favor 
with parents as furnishing some school work at home. 
And it finds favor with the teachers, as giving the only 
means with the younger children, or with poor scholars, 
of forming those habits of attention, application, perse- 
verance and retention which are the characteristic 
features of a system of tasks. 



48 SPELLING. 

Directions. 

1. Require the pupil to pronounce: — 

{a) The word accurately before spelling; 
(J)) The letters accurately; 
(c) The syllables accurately; 
{cl) The words accurately after spelling; 
{e) The words of the succeeding lesson accurate- 
ly before study. 

2. Require the pupil to name everything necessary to 
the correct writing or printing of the word, as the capi- 
tal letter, hyphen, apostrophe, etc. 

3. Require the pupils to copy the words of the suc- 
ceeding lesson several times before spelling. 

4. Let every fifth exercise be a review. 

5. Require misspelled words to be written correctly. 

6. Review often and advance slowly. 

Cautions. 
The teacher should : — 

{a) Pronounce the word only once. 

{!)) Never repeat a syllable. 

(c) Not permit the pupil to repeat a syllable. 

{d) Require pupils to divide one S5dlable from 
another by a pause. 

(e) Give no undue emphasis to unaccented syl- 
lables. 

(/) Forbid the ^\\\)\\ to try the second time on a 
word. 

(g) Explain new words. 

Results. 

1. The correct spelling of words. 

2. The correct pronunciation of words. 



WIUTTEJS" SPELLING. 49 

lu teaching Spelling, the instructor should aim to 
ffive interest to the exercise by frequently 

, , Remarks 

varying the mode of recitation. But what- 
ever course is pursued, the following directions should 
be strictly adhered to: 

a. The word should be pronounced distinctly; just as 
it would be pronounced by a good reader or a good 
speaker. In giving out the words to a class, teachers 
sometimes commit the error of departing from the ordi- 
nary pronunciation, for the sake of indicating the 
orthography. No tindue emphasis oy prolongatmi of the 
utterances of a syllable should be given by the teacher. 

1). The pupil should spell once only on a word; as all 
beyond will be merely guessing. 

For employment between recitations the children 
should be permitted and encouraged, and required and 
compelled, to write all the exercises they read or spell 
upon their slates. 

The best way to stud}- a spelling lesson is to require 
the pupils to write it several times on their 

. . . Importance 

slates. The practice of requirinsr pupils to of written 

. o jr jr ^ spelling. 

study the lesson a given number of times 

only teaches them to hurry over their study, and not to 

study to any purpose. 

It is not the number of times a lesson has been studied 
that should be considered the mark of effort, but the 
ability to spell every word in the lesson. 

There is no reason why every child in every school 
should not be a good penman at a very early 
age. The advantage of this acquisition to of teaching 
the children cannot be overrated; for, besides ^" ^^' 
the mechanical skill, the child has the means of constant 



50 SPELLI^TG. 

employment which will keep him from idleness and 
mischief, and the energetic teacher can make this skill 
bear upon almost every exercise in other branches of 
instruction. 

AYritten" Spelling. 

Directions. 

1. Preparation for the lesson. 

{a) Pronounce the word accurately. 

{h) Use it in the construction of a sentence. 

(c) Define it. 

{d) Write a sentence containing it. 

2. Materials — Book, pen and ink. 

3. Require the pupils to write the word neatly, as 
soon as pronounced. 

4. At the close of the written exercise, the teacher, 
or some pupil, should spell the word orally. 

5. The pupil should check the misspelled words. 

6. Every misspelled word, and word omitted, should 
be written correctly in the Appendix, with its number 
and the number of the column. 

7. All blanks, letters or words erased, inserted, writ- 
ten over, or written indistintly, should be considered as 
errors. 

8. The teacher should examine the papil's work, and 
keep a record of the scholarship. 

9. Begin all words with small letters, except proper 
names. 

Catitions, 

1. The teacher should give sufficient time to the ex- 
ercise. 



DISCOVERY OF MISTAKES. 51 

2. The direction number eight must be adhered to 
strictly ; any violation will be counted the same as a 
misspelled word. 

3. If words are found unchecked, they should be 
marked with a cipher. 

4. Every word which the student checks for himself 
will deduct one; every one checked with a cipher will 
deduct five ; any correction whatever made in the col- 
umn will deduct ten. 

^' The old adage, ' Eyes are better than ears/ nowhere 
holds ffood with greater force than in learn- 
ing to Si3ell.^^ Familiarity with words as 
written, such as will give the knowledge of all the let- 
ters and their proper position, is necessary to the i^ower 
of writing them correctly. , Such familiarity is obtained 
only from frequently ' seeing and writing them. The 
only way to produce words accurately is to make them 
familiar to the eye; hence the well-known fact that per- 
sons who read much, as compositors, or write much, as 
copyists, invariably spell correctly; hence also the com- 
mon practice, when people are in doubt between two 
forms of words, to write them both, when the eye in- 
stantly decides on the right way. 

The detection of every mistake with least loss of time 
is of the first importance. Careful exam- Discovery 
ination of each slate by the teacher is most °^ mistakes. 
likely to secure this, but it is open to the fatal objection 
that it occupies much time and leaves the class idle. 
In some schools monitors are ajDpointed to examine the 
slates and to correct the mistakes. This, apart from 
the difficulty of getting properly qualified monitors, is 
objectionable, as yielding the monitors no adequate re- 



o2 SPELLING. 

turn for their long and irksome task, to which must be 
added the possibility of unfaithfulness. The plan of 
allowing the children to inspect each other^s slates is 
open to serious objections, not the least of which is the 
distrust it seems to imply. Sometimes the children 
compare their slates with the lesson in the book, or 
written on the black-board; a plan which has the advan- 
tages of throwing the labor on the child, and of having 
the corrections made at the same time : all that is needed 
being a vigilant oversight, to see that it is faithfully done. 
But the method which to our mind is the best, is to 
dictate but one or two sentences, and then to have each 
sentence spelled through, either by the teacher or by the 
scholars in turn, every mistake being underlined. 

The correction of mistakes should appeal to the eye, 
not to the ear. Pains should be taken to 

Corrections. . • .1 £ i -e - 

ascertain the cause 01 any common detect. 
For this purpose the word should be written on the 
black-board, and alongside of it the correct form; the 
two should be compared and the cause of the mistake 
discovered. Often this will be a lesson on the structure 
of a class of words, and probably prevent similar mis- 
takes afterwards. After this has been done, the whole 
class should write the word in its correct form, and then 
the words should be dictated afresh; if any now have 
mistakes, they should be required to write the words 
three or six times, according to the degree of careless- 
ness shown. Sometimes it may be well to direct the 
children themselves to write correctly the words they 
have underlined, this making them attentive while the 
words are being spelled. But, as a general thing, this 
is open to the objection that it appeals to the eye, and 



METHODS. 55 

that it does not occupy the children who have spelled 
it correctly. 

Methods in Spellij^^g. 
/. Constructive Method, 

The teacher should request the pupils: — 
{ct) To name a few familiar words. 
(J) To construct with block or card letters, 
(c) To S2:>ell the words by the sound of the letters. 
{d) To copy the words on their slates. 
{e) To tell the silent letters. 
(/) To spell the words by the name of the letters. 
(^) To use each word correctly in a sentence. 

//. Ohjective Method. 

The teacher should request the pupils: — 

{a) To bring to school a number of objects of the 

same kind. 
(h) To examine them carefully, 
(c) To name the parts. 
{d) To spell and write words. 
(e) To tell the uses of the parts. 
(/) To introduce the word into a sentence. 
( g) To name the properties of the parts. 
{h) To write a short composition, reproducing the- 

words. 

///. Definitive Method, 

1. Assign an object to every pupil. 

2. Pupils find the meaning. 

3. Pupils name the parts, qualities, uses, etc. 

4. Pupils write a .short composition, reproducing the- 
words. 



54 SPELLING. 

IV. Co7nposition Method. 

1. The teacher writes a certain number of words on 
the board, requiring the pupils to copy. 

2. The pupils learn to define them. 

3. The pupils use them in composition of a sentence. 

V. Geographical Method. 
Require the pupils to spell the names of: — 
{a) Countries. 
(h) States. 

(c) Counties. 

(d) Cities. 

(e) Towns. 

(/) Divisions of Land. 
( g) Divisions of Water. 
(h) Occupations. 

VI. Natural History Method. 
Require the pupils to spell the names of 
(a) Animals, Minerals, etc. 
(J) Trees. 

(c) Fruits. 

(d) Flowers. 

(e) Vegetables. 

VII. Dictation Method. 

1. The teacher has Dictation Exercises once a week. 

2. He dictates stories, descriptions, etc., to the pupils 
who produce them exactly. 

Suggestions for the Above Exercise. 

1. Write your full name on the paper. 

2. Number the sentences. 

3. Construct every letter accurately. 



METHODS. 55 

4. Do not erase letters or words. 

5. Do not insert letters or words. 

6. Do not write over letters or words. 

7. Do not prompt, or be prompted. 

8. Use capital letters correctly. 

9. Use punctuation marks correctly. 

10. Cross the ^^t's" and dot tlie '^i's." 

11. The teacher or pupil writes the correct forms on 
the board. 

12. Those who make mistakes in spelling, or in any 
of the directions, are required to correct them. 

13. The teacher examines the papers; and 

14. Finds the per cent. 

However thorough the drill in spelling may be from 
the lessons of the speller or reader, every 
teacher should have frequent and copious ex- 
ercises in spelling words from other sources. These 
should be words in common use, chosen as far as possi- 
ble from the range of the pupil^s observation, including 
the new words that arise in object lessons, in geography, 
arithmetic and grammar. The more difficult of these 
words should be written in columns on the board, and 
studied and reviewed with the same care as lessons from 
the speller and reader. Failures in spelling these words 
should be marked as errors, the same as failures in any 
other lessons. 

Suggestive Methods ijt Spellij^g. 

1. Read a short sentence distinctly, and require every 
word to be spelled by the class, — the first pupil pro- 
nouncing and spelling the first word, the next pupil the 
second, and so on until all the words in the sentence 



56 SPELLIJ^G. 

have been spelled. (An excellent exercise; it demands 
attention.) 

2. It will be well in oral spelling to make all the 
members of the class responsible for the accnrate spell- 
ing of each and every word. 

If the first member of the class misspells the word 
given to him, let the teacher proceed and give out the 
next word, without intimating Avhether the first word 
was correctly or incorrectly spelled. 

If the second \n\\)i\ thinks the first word was not 
spelled correctly, he will spell it instead of the one given 
him, and so on through the class, each being expected 
to correct any error that may have been committed. If 
the first pupil spells a word incorrectly, and no one cor- 
rects it, let all be charged with a failure. This mode will 
amply compensate for its frequent adoption. 

Two-thirds of the words in the English language 

Put your need but little study. The remainder can 

onthedif- be mastered only by study. The pupils 

should be urged to study the difficult words. 

3. Another mode of conducting the exercise of spell- 
ing is the following, and we may add that for more ad- 
vanced schools it possesses some advantages. 

Let the teacher write legibly on the board twenty or 
more difficult words, and allow them to remain long 
enough to be carefully studied by the school. A few 
minutes before the exercise let all the words be erased 
from the board. I^t each pupil provide himself with a 
slip of paper, following the order as directed in the pre- 
vious exercises. The teacher will pronounce the words 
and the pupils will write them. 



SUGGESTIVE METHODS. 57 

After the words have been written, let the slips be 
collected and taken by the teacher, who may himself — 
aided by some of the pupils — examine the slips, and 
mark the words spelled incorrectly. Subsequently, let 
the teacher read the result to the whole school, stating 
the number of errors committed by the several pupils; 
after which the papers may be returned for correction. 
If there is a good board in the room, a few pupils should 
write the lesson on it. 

4. An attractive mode, which may answer for oral or 
written spelling, is the following: 

The instructor pronounces a word which fs to be 
spelled by the first in the class, who will name immedi- 
ately another, commencing with the final letter of the 
first word which is to be spelled by the next pupil; and 
he in turn will name another word, and so on through 
the class. It will awaken thought and interest. 

5. Another mode which has its advantages is the fol- 
lowing: 

Let the teacher dictate some twenty or twenty-five 
words to the class, requiring the members to write them 
on their slates. These words are to be carefully exam- 
ined and studied by the pupils, who are also to be re- 
quired to incorporate each word in a sentence which, 
shall illustrate its meaning and show that it is under- 
stood by them. 

After these sentences have been read and erased from 
the slates, let the words be dictated again, to be written 
and examined with special reference to the orthography. 

The teacher should keep a copy of all words dictated 
to the pupils and hold them responsible for the correct 
spelling in review. 

E 



58 SPELLI]S"G. 

Teachers should give close attention to this important 
Importance Subject, for truly it has been said, ^'To spell 
of spelling, one's own language well is no great credit 
to him, for he ought to do it; but to spell it ill is a dis- 
grace, because it indicates extremely poor attention and 
loose scholarship/' 

We have a great number of spelling-books, grammars, 
and other aids, but with all these, poor spellers greatly 
abound. 

One cause of the frequency of poor spelling may be 
found in the neglect with which the spelling lesson is 
treated in schools. It is often crowded into a few min- 
utes and passed over in a very hurried and imperfect 
manner, and if any exercise must be omitted the spell- 
ing lesson is the neglected one. Another cause may be 
found in a feeling, not very uncommon, that spelling is 
undeserving the attention of any but very young pupils. 

From the beginning let your pupils understand that 
the spelling lesson will always receive its due share of 
attention, and its due time. Hold your pupils respon- 
sible for the correct spelling of every word at the regu- 
lar recitation and upon reviews. 

As soon as the pupils can write, which, in a well-con- 
ducted school, is about as soon as they can read, special 
instruction in spelling with script letters should be in- 
troduced, and children should be required to write and 
to spell orally every word in their reading, and in all 
other lessons. If accuracy and neatness in every par- 
ticular be required, habits of careful attention will be 
formed. 



EXERCISES IN PRON'UKCIATION". 59 

The child must be taught to spell correctly before 
twelve years old, as this habit is seldom acquired after 
that age. 

A good speller is one who habitually gives the cor- 
rect form to every word in his written exer- spelling used 
cises. It is only in printed and written Ian- fngVnd^writ- 
guage that correct spelling possesses any ^"^• 
value. Oral spelling is not a test of accuracy. It is 
impossible to memorize by their letters all the words in 
our language. If we wish to make pupils excellent 
spellers, we must cultivate the powers of observation and 
memory. If habits of carelessness and inaccuracy are 
allowed to be formed in childhood, no ordinary efforts 
in after life can overcome the defects or supply the de- 
ficiencies that result from such habits. 

GrENERAL EULES FOR SpELLI:NG. 

Rule 1. Write no word unless sure of its orthography 
and signification. 

Rule 2. Consult the dictionary in case of doubt. 

Rule 3. Apply the rules for derivatives. 

Eules for spelling are of but little use in primary 
classes, or in fact in any classes. It may be 
well to memorize them, as they may prove of 
a little use in spelling of derivatives. 

Exercises in Orthoepy. 

Note. — The teacher should write these words on the 
board, and let the pupils pronounce them. 

1. sacrifice, 6. torrid, 

2. memoriter, 7. often, 

3. pedagogy, 8. pretty, 



60 



SPELLING. 



4. equable, 

5. truths, 

1. sSc'rtfice, 

2. m6m6r'iter. 

3. p6d'agogy, 

4. e'quable, 

5. truths, 

1. finale, 

2. apparatus, 

3. orotund, 

4. jugular, 

5. enervate, 

1. frna'le, 

2. Sppara'tus, 

3. O^rotund, 

4. ju'gular, 

5. Bner'vate, 

1. aye, 

2. area, 

3. almond, 

4. alias, 

5. arctic, 

1. rye, 

2. a'rea, 

3. a'mond, 

4. a'lras, 

5. arc'tic, 

1. Appala'cliian, 

2. Am'azon, 

3. New Or'leans, 

4. New'foundland, 

5. Sliawan'gunk, 



9. finance, 
10. mercy. 

6. t5r'rW, 

7. often, 

8. prlt'ty, 

9. fl'nSuce, 
10. mer'cy. 



6. inquiry, 

7. employe, 

8. condolence, 

9. dessert, 

10. pronunciation. 

6. Inqul'ry, 

7. employe, 

8. condo'lence, 

9. dgsserf, 

10. pronuncia'tion. 



6. acclimate, 

7. apparent, 

8. aspirant, 

9. allopathy, 
10. albumen. 

6. accll'mate, 

7. Sppar'ent, 

8. Ssplr'ant, 

9. allop'athy, 
10. Slbu'inen. 



6. Colora'do, 

7. Coho'es, 

8. Virgi'nia, 

9. Arkan'sas, 
10. Ausa'ble. 



ARTICULATION^. 61 

^' Exactness in articulation cannot exist without close 
discrimination and careful analysis." The 

•^ Remarks. 

preceding exercises on the correct pronun- 
ciation of words should receive attention. It would be 
well for the teacher to write on the board a list of words 
pronounced incorrectly by the j)upils, and require the 
pupils to correct them. 



The author's "Pocket Pronunciation Book" (price 15 cts.,) 
gives 3 000 of the words oftenest mispronounced. Hall's "Or- 
thography Made Easy " (price 75 cts.) gives 38 selections of the 
words oftenest mispronounced, with a key at the end of each 
giving all the words with diacritical marks. Hoose's ' ' Studies in 
Articulation " (price 50 cts ) gives a careful study of sounds, with 
abundant exercises in pronunciation. 

Inquiries are made frequently for books for written spelling. 
Of these the number is legion, but one of the best is "The Bul- 
letin Blank Speller." prepared by Henry B. Buckham, former 
Principal of the Buffalo State Normal School. Price 15 cts. each, 
$10.00 per hundred. 



PENMANSHIP. 



I. GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

Instruction in penmanship may be broadly classed 
under two heads; one which aims to teach scholars to 
draw^ and the other which seeks to develop the forms of 
letters through the medium of natural movements. 

The first makes use mainly of the movements which 
may be produced by the fingers, thumb and wrist, while 
the second recognizes a medium of execution which 
brings into play the entire arm and shoulder muscles. 

These two processes are based upon principles so radi- 
cally different, that a clear understanding of the nature 
and tendency of each is quite essential to any intelligent 
plan of teaching. 

It would be comj^aratively easy to suggest theoretically 
a method for instructing classes in our public schools, 
which if carried out according to programme would 
insure excellent results, but in practice we might find 
it an entirely different thing; the conditions are usually 
so restrictive, and the requirements regarding other 
branches to be taught so numerous that the question 
really becomes, not so much what ought a teacher to do, 
as what can he do, under the circumstances? 

Penmanship not Acquired by Imitation of Forms. 

One of the first requirements, especially in our graded 
A fundamen- schools, is that a child from the moment he 
tai error. enters shall begin to learn to make the script 
letters, and to form them into words and sentences, as 

(62) 



IMITATION OF FORMS. 63 

an essential medium for developing the faculty of lan- 
guage. In doing this if he is able to draw out the forms 
legibly upon the slate or tablet, the important question 
of how it is done is rarely considered, and even the 
more important question as to what future use the child 
may make of this writing, receives but little attention. 

It is a fact well known to teachers that in learning to 
form the letters, young children almost in- 

. . 1 1 • » • i-i •! Early forma- 

variably acquire a habit oi grasping the pencil tion of bad 
in a manner which cramps the fingers, forces 
the hand over to the right, bends the wrist in toward the 
body, and places the pen in a position which is so awk- 
ward and unnatural as to prevent absolutely anything 
like fredom in execution; but it is forgotten that this 
habit of twisting and distorting the position of the hand 
must in time become as much a part of the act of writ- 
ing as the form of the letter itself. 

The force of habit will be certain to assert its power, 
and this strained unnatural position must eventually 
identify itself with the forming process in every letter — 
the act of writing becomes a torture instead of a pleasure, 
and a struggle ensues between teacher and pupil, when 
the slate is exchanged for the copy book, and the attempt 
is made to correct the habit. 

Nor does the difficulty end when by careful teaching 
and patient effort, the scholar has obtained some con- 
trol of the pen, and is able to imitate tlie forms of letters. 
The carefully drawn page in the copy book will often 
excite admiration, while the composition or other written 
exercise presents a style of penmanship which fails to 
Suggest any connection between them, the character of 



64 PENMANSHIP. 

the handwriting in the two instances being as totally 
unlike as if written by different persons. 

This tendency to write two entirely different hands 
is not at all uncommon among school children, and 
demonstrates quite clearly that penmanship acquired by 
imitation, and with the hand and pen in a false position, 
lacks the essential quality of practical application. 

Under these conditions the teacher is quite apt to 
become discouraged, and may conclude that such results 
are invariable; but when properly understood, the real 
cause of failure may be traced to the natural difference 
which exists between drawing two Avords per minute in 
the writing lesson, and the attempts to draw fifteen or 
twenty in the same time in the composition, where it 
becomes evident that the process of correct drawing 
must be restricted as to speed. 

It is perhaps practically impossibly to do away with 

slate-work in teaching writing to j^rimary 

ta^esof scholars, notwithstanding its liability to pro- 

slate-work. , i i i i • , • i t t • , • 

mote bad habits in pen-holding, its certain 
tendency to make a scholar careless in all his work; but 
it is evident that the transition from the unyielding 
slate surface and the short pencil where main strength 
often becomes an active element, to the sharp, pliant 
pen and soft texture of the paper, is altogether too 
abrupt. Some kind of preparation is needful, and if an 
intermediate drill in which long lead pencils might be 
used on calendered manilla paper, was introduced, it 
would render the change more gradual and be produc- 
tive of better results. 

So long as instruction in penmanship consists of 
teaching by imitation the forms of letters with such 



THE SECRET OF SUCCESS. 65 

occasional directions for position and pen-holding, as a 
teacher who cannot himself hold a pen correctly may ven- 
ture to give, the theory of an intimate relation between 
writing and drawing will be accepted; the faculty of 
drawing will possibly be somewhat developed, but as 
regards any practical application commercially or other- 
wise, the process results in failure, the scholar continues 
to draw term after term, but unfortunately never learns 
to write. 

This may partly explain why the slate work of the 
primary grades in many of our schools is so much better 
than the pen work of scholars in the higher classes; the 
formation in writing is so simple that the elements are 
rarely acquired, but in the attempt to use pen and ink, 
without having been thoroughly drilled in movement, 
the correct form quickly disappears. 

The Secret of Success Lies ii^ the Arm Movement. 

Want of confidence, generally arising from a belief 
that one must needs be a fine penman to teach this 
branch successfully, prevents many able teachers from 
attempting anything out of ordinary routine. 

A knowledge of the nature and value of movement, 
the ability to make upon the blackboard a Every teacher 
few simple elements of form, a little faith penmanship 
gained from personal experience and a dis- ^^ ' 
position to work, will enable any teacher to obtain as 
good results in this as in any other branch, and quite 
frequently much better. 

If penmanship as now taught in our public schools is 
a comparative failure, the fault is largely with the 
teacher; he does not need to be an expert penman to 



66 PEI^MANSHIP. 

teach it acceptably. It is better to know something of 
the analysis of letters, but the requirements in this re- 
spect are not beyond what the majority possess. 

He should, of course, understand from the start that 
he is to teach writing, not drawing, and the scholar 
should be made to realize that he is to learn to form the 
letters with the whole arm instead of the fingers. 

Whole-arm, as here used, should not be confounded 
with off-hand or free-arm movement, for although the 
entire arm is used, the fore-arm rest on the desk is 
maintained, and the sleeve is kept from sliding. 

Next, and in this connection most important of all, 
teacher and scholar should each know that 

Not imitation . ^ • • 

but move- the best way to improve his penmanship is 
to stop writing entirely, so far as imitation 
of letters is concerned, and to give all attention to the 
cultivation or development of movement through prac- 
tice on properly arranged exercises. 

It is evident that if a scholar has already acquired a 
false position of the hand in learning to form letters on 
the slate or otherwise, this form and position are to 
a degree inseparable, and continued practice on the 
letters with pen and ink will serve merely to confirm 
bad habits, and to j^revent the establishment of correct 
ones. 

New forms of exercise must necessarily be associated 
with the new movements, and that the mo- 
should be on tive for practice may not be uncertain, the 
hand and arm under the impulse of an aug- 
mented power must be drilled to do something definite, 
having always for its object the application of the move- 
ments acquired to the construction of letters; hence all 



EEPETITION OF ONE MOVEMENT. 6T 

exercises of muscular drill should be based upon the 
standard forms of ovals, separately, and associated with 
straight lines. 

General Directions. 
There is so much variety in the shape and size of 
school desks that definite instruction for the 

T ^ ^ • e 1 ^ natural 

position of the body, and the placing of tne position the 
right arm so as to secure the best results in 
all cases cannot be given, but it will generally be found 
that if a scholar is given a start in arm movement, and, 
is made to understand clearly what is expected of him, 
he will usually adjust himself to existing conditions and 
work out both problems in a satisiactory manner. 

It is the constant, persistent repetition of a single 
movement which tells in forming an exercise, 

T r-, . I p 1 • » 1 , Repetition of 

and this part oi a beginner s work cannot a single 

n 1 T movement. 

well be overdone. 

Drill a scholar in this manner for a few months and 
you will have given him a degree of facility with the 
pen which he can no more forget than the knack of 
skating or swimming, and in addition you will enable, 
him to lay the only true foundation for future success- 
ful practice in penmanship. 

In telegraphy the character, or the sound rej^resent- 
ing it, is not produced by the operator through any 
mental recognition of the number or arrangement of 
the dots and dashes employed, but by an unconscious- 
action of the fingers, which through long practice has- 
come to personate that special character. And the 
business penman, although forming characters with per- 
fect uniformity, gives no thought to the matter of rights 



68 PEl^MANSHIP. 

left or double curves; a definite movement has been 
•established for each letter, and the hand trained by 
j)ractice does the work without mental effort. 

That which in practice is true of telegrapliy or rapid 
■business writing is equally true in applying acquired 
movements in learning to write. The letters are so 
^constructed that by learning the strokes which form the 
principal types — five in number — the letters themselves 
may be formed without especial effort; and if the stroke 
fails to produce a correct type, the error will be found 
to result from an imperfect movement rather than from 
any lack of knowledge in formation, and want of char- 
acter in any letter may be directly traced to lack of 
firmness and precision in the arm action. 

Very much of this fine theorizing about the necessity 
for developing the artistic, and cultivating 

Individuality . ^ - o 

3n penman- the bcautiful in Conception of form, as ap- 
plied to teaching school children to write is 
mere nonsense, and may easily become a hindrance 
rather than a help to practical work. 

It is a well understood fact that no two persons ever 
■did or ever will write exactly alike; in learning, each 
one will be certain to develop characteristics peculiar 
to himself, and there is little use or reason in attempt- 
ing to force all hands into any specific mould. 

Make a careful study of the right arm; ascertain by 
:stud the practice which muscles and joints come most 
•arm. prominently into use by the act of writing, 

^nd then introduce such calisthenic exercises as will disci- 
pline these into subjection to the will; now, basing your 
pen drills upon properly arranged exercises, put scholars 
in the way of securing this faculty or knack of move- 



IK PUBLIC SCHOOLS. 69 

ment as applied to the different classes of letters, and 
the mere matter of form, although of equal importance, 
will require but little special attention. 

The Public Schools may make Good Penmen". 

Many teachers get the idea that as good work cannot, 
be done in public schools as in those organized for 
special instruction in commercial branches, but experi- 
ence shows that the better work in almost every respect, 
can and should be done in the former. 

The organization and force of discipline behind a, 
teacher in a well resfulated public school is a _ 

^. . -^ Force of or- 

powerful lever, which ri2:htly applied may ganization 

f 1 . 1 ^^^ discipline.. 

be made a means for producing results not 
easily attainable in any other way. In addition to this,, 
the fact that children may be kept under a systematic, 
course of training for several years, and the habits of 
correct position, movement and formation so firmly 
established as to assure continued improvement after 
leaving school, renders the public school instruction in 
many respects more valuable than tuition under other- 
conditions. 

II. PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 

Suggestions to Teachers. 

The lessons given on the following pages are intended 
to assist you in acquiring the arm movement Leam to do 
in writing, as distinguished from the use of ^ ^^"^' 
the thumb and finger joints. If you will merely taka 
the time to demonstrate its value in your own case you 
cannot very well fail in teaching it successfully to others. 
But this is a case where for a certainty you must learn 



70 PENMANSHIP. 

to do by doing, and the measure of your own success 
will determine the degree of confidence with which you 
will impart it into others. You need not necessarily 
wait for its accomplishment before beginning to teach 
it. As soon as you have learned to place the arm and 
liand properly, as directed on page 71, and can make 
the dij'ect muscular 7noveme7it as illustrated on page 73 
{but without the pen) put your class under the same 
drill, and by thus ajjplying the theory in practice you 
will add materially to the value of your own training. 

When the work outlined in this lesson has been ac- 
complished, when you can not only make the 
the pupil. movement exercises fairly well (this does not 
refer to a perfect formation, as that is merely a result 
and not a means) but can also teach others to make them, 
then you will be prepared to continue the application of 
the method by the use of properly arranged exercise 
books. For position you will probably obtain the best 
results by having the pupil turn the right side to the 
4esk, placing the right fore-arm entirely on it (the 
elbow joint will not interfere if the arm is perfectly flat), 
and with left hand brought to the edge to hold the joaper 
or book. The body should not touch the edge of the 
desk. Do not allow the pupil to lean on the right arm; 
be careful that a light rest is maintained in all move- 
ments. 

In practising to improve your penmanship, legibility 
and uniformity are the primary, and free- 

ends to be dom in movement and rapid execution, the 
ultimate results to be attained. These, taken 

together, constitute the essentials of good writing. 



PEACTICAL EXERCISES. 



71 



The motive for practice should not be uncertain; the 
hand and arm must be drilled to do something definite, 
and that having ahvays for its object the application of 
the movements acquired to the construction of letters. 
We may say here, that all consideration of this subject 
will be from the standpoint of future utility, by assum- 
ing that those who undertake to carry out the instruc- 
tion will have in view a practical application in some 
form of what they may acquire either as teachers or 
penmen. 




Cut No. 1— Giving correct position of hand and pen, also showing action 
of the hand, with forearm working back and forth v/ithout 
sliding the sleeve, in making the direct muscular movement. 

Position. 
The position of the hand and pen, in learning to write, 
is of such vital importance that any neglect 
to secure and maintain the standard position tion indis- 
will be almost certain to result in failure; ^^° ^ 
any attempt to evade this point by trying to do it your 
way, because it appears less difficult, will simply defeat 



72 PEKMANSHIP. 

its accomplishment. If you value success in this work, 
be sure that you begin right in pen holding, and then be 
very careful that you keep right. 

The directions for securing this have reference to 
placing the body in such a position at the table (not 
always applicable to school desks), as will admit of an 
unrestricted use of the right arm, hand and fingers. In 
teaching position to school children, let them turn the 
right side, placing the right arm on the desk parallel to 
its front edge; left hand brought to the edge of desk to 
hold book or practice paper, both feet on floor, etc., 
straighten the arm until the elbow comes near the front 
of the body. When practicing at a table take a position, 
nearly square in front, with both arms resting, the left 
with the elbow projecting over the edge two to four 
inches, and brought near the body. 

This latter direction cannot be observed if the top of 
the talkie is much more than two inches above the elbow 
joint when the arm is dropped by the side. A low table 
or high chair is much better for movement practice. 

Sit close to the table, but without the body touching 
it. Steady your position by leaning upon the left arm 
only, the right resting very slightly. The relative posi- 
tion of the right fore-arm and upper arm should be such 
as to form a right angle at the elbow. Open the right 
hand, placing it perfectly flat upon the table, palm 
touching and arm resting as described above. Now ob- 
serve carefully the position of the wrist and fore-arm, 
the former slightly raised, the latter resting lightly on 
the bunch of muscles below the elbow. If you have 
followed directions, both are in correct position. Be 



MOVEMENT. 73 

very careful to keep them so by frequently repeating the 
above. 

Movement. 

Without changing position, close the right hand firmly, 
raise it just enough to clear the table, and balance on 
the muscles of the fore-arm, not allowing the wrist to 
touch; now, using the muscles of the shoulder in con- 
junction with the shoulder and elbow joints, work the 
fore-arm back and forth in its own direction, pushing 
out and drawing in, but without sliding the sleeve. 
The sleeve should remain stationary as if glued to the 
table, while the wrist works out and in, impelled by 
action of the shoulder muscles. 

The simple motion thus produced on a direct line with 
the fore-arm is the key to all muscular move- 

, . . The key to 

ments, and should be practised daily until muscular 

T , , movements. 

the action of the muscles brought into play 
becomes perfectly easy. The fore-arm in this direct 
motion will carry the hand back and forth a distance of 
from one to one and a half inches without sliding the 
sleeve. Take a careful gauge of your own movement, 
and then see how you can increase it by practice. This 
movement should be made slowly at first — sixty per min- 
ute — and then gradually worked up to two hundred and 
fifty, but always up to the full limit of distance. 

After thorough drill on this movement, change the 
motion to one which will produce an oval instead of a 
straight line, at first going around in the direction 
which would form the letter 0, and then in the opposite 
direction. But don^t attempt the second until you can 
make the first perfectly. Just make up your mind to 



74 



PEITMAl^SHIP. 



do one thing at a time, and to try to do that well. It 
will be better if you do not take up the pen or try to 
make any exercises with ink until you have faithfully 
carried out the suggestions for muscular practice as 
given. 

If it takes you one or two weeks to accomplish it, you 
will have made a good investment of your time, and will 
be saved double as many months of future practice by 
adopting this course. 

POSITION^ AND MOVEMENT COMBINED. 

After this, the next step will be to place the hand 




.1r 



Cut No. 2.— Giving correct position of hand and pen, and showing simulta- 
neous movement of pen point and hand, the latter sliding on 
nails of third and fourth fingers, with fore-arm working in the 
sleeve: The dotted lines show position of paper in practising. 
B. B., direction of arm; V. F., direction oftuled paper. 



I 

iv 

I- 

■it 



POSITION" AN"D MOVEMENT. 75 

and pen in correct position, and then to go through the 
same movement exercises as described above without 
touching the pen point, and by gliding on the nails of 
the third and fourth fingers. Make a careful study of 
the two cuts of hand, pages 71 and 74, observing espe- 
cially how the thumb and the third and fourth fingers 
are placed; end of thumb opposite first joint of fore- 
finger, third and fourth fingers bent inward until they 
rest upon the nails — not the tips, but now nearly flat. 

Now practise upon the movements; first the direct, 
as shown in cut 1, and then the oval, as shown in cut 2, 
in eacii case sliding upon the nails, the pen point just 
above but not touching the paper, and without any ac- 
tion of the joints of the thumb or first finger. 

A special point to be gained here is to learn to carry 
all the weight of the hand on the nails of the special point 
third and fourth fingers, so that when the to be gained, 
pen is allowed to touch the paper the point will glide 
over its surface without friction. The movements must 
be produced by a free action of the entire arm; get all 
the motion you possibly can without sliding the sleeve; 
study these movements carefully, watch the action of 
the upper arm and observe what muscles and joints are 
brought into play. 

Try to realize that for the present you will have no 
use for your fingers in this practice, except to hold the 
pen and support the hand, that every line and curve in 
writing may be produced with the muscles of the 
shoulder and the upper arm while resting upon the fore- 
arm, and that only the shoulder and elbow joints need 
to be brought into use. As soon as you understand this 
point clearly you will discover that one way of learning 



76 PENMANSHIP. 

to write is to put these muscles under training, and to 
discipline them until they come under complete control. 
We have already indicated how the first steps in this 
important work may be taken, and trust that you are 
disposed to give it a fair trial. 

A good exercise, calculated to develop tho muscles of 
the fore-arm, is to close the hand tightly and then 
quickly throw it wide open. Make the movement from 
twenty to fifty times, with the arm extended, and re- 
peat many times every day. You will find it an excel- 
lent practice. 

In practising the ovals with pen and ink, remember 
that the movement of the arm and hand immediately 
preceding the formation, is of more value than the 
making of the oval itself, the former constituting the 
real disciplinary drill, the latter being merely a record 
of the movement attained. Place your hand in the po- 
sition shown in cut 2, being careful that the penholder, 
crossing the forefinger in front of the knuckle joint, 
points nearly at your head, as it will if the arms lie flat. 
Glance at cut No. 1, and observe if the third and fourth 
fingers are in position to slide onthe nails, see also if 
the thumb is j)laced opposite the first joint of the fore- 
finger. 

Exercise No. 1. Direct Oval Movement. 




Before taking ink and without touching pen to paper. 



REVERSED OVAL MOVEMENT. 77 

make the direct movement fifty times quite rapidly. 
Rest. Next make the direct oval movement, or that 
which forms the letter 0, fifty times. Now take ink, 
and again placing the hand in exact position, the fore- 
arm crossing the ruled lines at right angles, but without 
touching pen, make the direct oval movement thirty 
times, gauging it so that it appears to move exactly one 
space in height; at the thirtieth count, but without 
checking the movement, let the pen drop lightly on the 
paper and continue the movement for twenty strokes. 
At first you will make no special effort to guide the pen 
in forming an oval, but simply allow it to make an exact 
record of your arm movement. 

Repeat this until the movement will naturally form a 
perfect oval. The rate of speed in doing this work will 
vary from one hundred to one hundred and fifty per 
minute, counting down strokes only and making a 
complete oval at each count. In practising the last sec- 
tion of this exercise, which introduces the extended or 
continuous movement from left to right, drill the move- 
ment down to about sixty or seventy-five strokes per 
minute; then taking ink and placing the hand in posi- 
tion, count thirty slowly, and at the thirtieth count let 
the pen drop and continue the movement across the 
paper, making the exercise exactly one space in height 
and without any shade. 

Exercise No. 2. Reversed Oval Movement. 

Before commencing on the second exercise go through 
the same preparation as for number one. If you hurry 
over this preliminary drill, you will be making a serious 
mistake. Each step, as described before, is of equal im- 



78 



PEKMAN^SHIP. 



portance, and should be faithfully followed out. Your 
success will depend largely upon the thoroughness with 
which the work of this lesson is done, and '^ make haste 
slowly '' will be a good motto for you to adopt. 




Exercise 2 consists of the revised oval movement first 
of the capital W. Proceed as in number one, forming 
the movement first, and allowing that to make the ovals. 
After the pen touches, make at least twenty strokes on 
each oval. 

Exercise No. 3. Lateral or Extended Movement. 





Make the spacing between the lines wider, so that eight of the first two 
sections or ten of the third will fill the space between ruled lines on 
paper. 

In making Exercise 3 we drop for a time the muscu- 
lar oval movement and practise the side or lateral. This 
consists of balancing on the muscles of the fore-arm, 
making that point a pivot, and sliding the hand back 
and forth from left to right on the nails of third and 



OYAL AKD LATERAL MOVEMENT. 



79 



fourth fingers. With the arm in this position, the pen 
point would, if long sweeps were made, form the arc of 
a circle; a very slight action of the muscle is necessary 
to keep the strokes parallel with the ruled lines. This 
is a valuable exercise, and should receive special atten- 
tion. Practise first as indicated in the copy and then 
extend the movement until you can swing the hand en- 
tirely across the page, making a steady, straight line^ 
and keeping the hand always up in correct position, using 
only the elbow joint. 

Exercise No. 4. Oombin^ed, Eeversed Oval an^d 
Lateral Movement. 




Exercise 4 combines the movements of 2 and 3. Be- 
fore making it with the pen, drill carefully to form the 
movement. Get the hand accustomed to swinging out 
to form the lateral oval, by going through the same 
process as indicated for number one. Practise it first 
as a reversed oval, going over the top toward the right. 
Watch the third and fourth fingers in the preliminary 
drill, and observe if they are moving so as to form a 
perfect oval. The movement of these fingers on the 
paper must, in all these exercises, be identical with 
that made by the pen. When you find the movement 
will form these ovals easily, reverse it and practise 
making them as direct ovals. Always count thirty 



80 PENMANSHIP. 

strokes, with the hand moving to form the oval, before 
you let the pen touch the paper. Keep in mind the 
greater importance of this preliminary drill. 

Exercise No. 5. Compound Curve, Lateral 
Movement. 




Exercise 5 introduces the compound or double curve 
movement, and, as this may prove somewhat difficult, 
care should be had not to use the joints of the thumb 
or fingers in making it. Drill persistently on it before 
taking up the pen, and then with pen in hand, but not 
touching paper, go through the movements over and 
over again, also reviewing in turn Exercises 1, 2 and 4, 
and then back to 5 again. This movement must come 
from the shoulder. Do not allow any action of the 
wrist joint. Make this exercise small at first. Watch 
the third and fourth fingers Avhen making the move- 
ment, and be sure they are tracing the same double 
curve form on the paper. 

You will get much better results from your labor by 
devoting all the time you can get to practice, to learn- 
ing to do well the exercises suggested by this lesson. 
Don't scatter your forces by attempting to cover too 
much ground. 



COKSTAKT KEVIEW. 81 

Concentrate all yonr energies on a single purpose. 
Get position and movement. Seek first to rpj^g goiden 
educate the muscles of your arm and hand, ^®y- 
to bring these useful members under the subjection to 
the will. The accomplishment of this is the golden key 
which will unlock the door to future successful practice. 
Don't be misled by the old adage that " practice makes 
perfect.^' Learn that practice in writing has little or 
no value unless it be well directed and intelligently 
applied. 

It is within your power to become a good penman, 
but don't attempt to accomplish this by any means 
except that which leads through persistent, thoughtful 
effort. We want every reader of this lesson, who is not 
already a proficient, to learn to be a good writer. 

The next exercises are directly dependent upon the 
preceding ones and the reader who has gone Review con- 
over them all carefully, practising as suggest- ^^^'^^^J'- 
ed from the various exercises, and thereby acquiring the 
foundation principles of position and movement, will be 
much better prepared to take up the work which follows 
and to obtain more profitable results from his labor. 
The more you work at this problem the more will you be 
convinced that thorough drill in these initial movements 
is the surest and quickest road to successful practice, 
and that if persistent, you cannot fail to reach it. 

Before beginning practise on Exercise No. 6, you will 
do well to refer back to No. 1, reading over carefully 
the suggestions which precede that copy. If you are a 
beginner, and are now for the first time trying to acquire 
the muscular movement, you will do wisely if you divide 
up the time devoted to this work as follows: Give one- 



82 PENMANSHIP. 

half of the allotted time each day to practice on the 
drills described under the head of Movement, and with- 
out the pen. Call this if you please the technique or 
gymnastics of penmanship — its importance may not at 
first be apparent — but experience will soon teach its 
value, and convince you how indispensable it is to cor- 
rect practice. Give one-fourth of the time each day to 
practice of the same drills, with the pen in hand, without 
ink, and without allowing the pen point to touch, simply 
sliding the hand on the nails of the third and fourth 
fingers, and the remaining fourth of the time to practis- 
ing with pen and ink from some of the various exercises, 
taking them up in regular order and practising from 
but one copy each day. 

It is the constant, persistent repetition of an exercise 
Persistent whicli tclls in forming the muscular move- 
repetition, ment, and if you acquire the habit of taking 
up a single exercise only for each stated lesson, you will 
secure better results. And, lastly, if you want to learn to 
write well, and accomplish it quickly, keep at the ex- 
ercise, and, while trying to establish correct habits of 
position and movement, do not waste much time practis- 
ing from letters, words or sentences. In Exercises 1, 2, 4 
and 5, do not imitate except in form. The lines shown 
merely indicate the direction of the movement, and you 
will make ten or fifteen strokes with pen instead of two 
or three lines as in copy. The last sections of 1 and 2 
are exceptions. 

When practising without touching the pen, or with- 
out the pen in hand, use the same thoughtful care and 
precision of strokes as if you were forming a copy with 
ink. 



DIRECT OVAL MOVEMENT. 



8^ 



Exercise No. 6. Direct Oval, Extended Move- 
ment, Shaded. 




Make with a slow movement, counting one for each up and down stroke. 

First correct the position of your hand, by compari-^ 
son with cuts 1 and 2, of this lesson. Next, form the- 
direct oval movement two spaces high, a space being 
the distance between blue lines on paper. By forming 
the movement is meant the process of drilling the arm 
and hand to describe the given oval or form, with mus- 
cular movement, pen in hand, point just above, but not 
touching the paper. Go around on this forming move- 
ment fifty times rapidly, making entire oval at each 
count, and then fifty times slowly, counting one each, 
for up or down stroke. 

Now take ink, and after placing the hand in position^ 
count thirty slowly, one for each up or down stroke, and 
at the thirty-first count, drop the pen on the down 
stroke, and continue the movement as shown in copy. 
While making the exercise, watch the third and fourth 
fingers, and observe if they keep the same movement as 
the pen, tracing the same size and form of oval. 

In practising this exercise, use the muscular move- 
ment, so far as possible, the shades being produced by 



S4: 



PENMANSHIP. 



£i pressure of the forefinger on the pen-holder. Observe 
that this is written upon the regular slant, every down 
stroke shaded, the curves on either side equal and par- 
allel to each other. Pay more attention to the move- 
ment than to the form. Compare the position of hand 
and pen Avhile writing, with cut Xo. 2, and see if the 
pen-holder points at the head, and also notice if the 
down strokes come toward the body on slant. 

After writing a line, ask yourself the following ques- 
'Questions for tions, and examine your work carefully: Was 
examinations. ^^^^^ position corrcct? Did you use the 

muscular movement? Are you making an oval whose 
width is two-thirds its height? Are, the curves at top 
and bottom equal? Does the exercise just fill two 
spaces? Are the curves parallel and equi-distant? Is 
the shade heaviest at centre? Do you use both points, 
or nibs, of the pen equally? Is the slant correct? Do 
jou slide the fingers on paper? 



Exercise No. 7. 



Reversed, Oval, Extended, 
Shaded. 




Place the hand in position and drill carefully to form 
the reversed oval movement. In forming the movement 



KEVERSED OVAL MOVEMENT. 85 

for this exercise, and for No. 6, it will be a good plan 
to practise it up to three spaces in height, drilling with 
a very rapid movement, without touching the pen, un^ 
til the pen swings with more freedom; then drop back 
to two spaces, and finally to one, drilling quite slowly. 
Please remember how important this preliminary drill 
is, and how much will depend upon doing this part of 
the work thoroughly. 

Take ink, place the hand in position, count thirty 
slowly, one for each stroke up or down, and at the thir- 
tieth count drop the pen and continue the exercise as 
shown in copy, making the same number of shaded 
strokes two spaces high. 

The slope, or inclination to the right, should be fifty- 
two de2:rees. This is on the re2:ular slant of 

. . . . The slope. 

writing, and applies to all copies which have 
been given except 3, 4 and 5. 

If you hold the hand as shown in cut 2, on page 74, 
and follow directions as to position of pen-holder and 
paper, the curved lines will naturally cross the spaces, 
obliquely and on the right slant; but if the hand turns 
over to the right, and the pen-holder fails to point at 
the head, your curved lines will have a vertical position. 

In writing this exercise remember that you are ta 
repeat the form of an oval, whose width is two-thirds 
its height, and that you are not to make a series of 
circles. Criticize your work carefully in this respect,, 
referring to Exercise 1 and 2, pages 76 and 77, and 
practising thoroughly the forming movement. Prac- 
tise writing Exercises 6 and 7 one space high. 

In writing this pay particular attention to movement. 
Use the entire arm freely, but without sliding the 



S6 PEITMANSHIP. 

sleeve, and keep the third and fourth lingers sliding on 
the paper. Make the shades heavy, but firm and 
smooth, keep both points of the pen on the paper. 
Write with a free, bold movement, let the hand swing 
freely, but keep the movement uniform and steady, so 
-as to produce equal shades and curves. Form the 
shade by making a slight pressure of the forefinger on 
the pen-holder. 

In practising movement exercises, it is important 
that the beginner should early learn to criticise his own 
work, and you will find the study and application of 
the questions given with this lesson of much assistance 
in this respect. 

QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION^. 

Have you practised with a free movement? 

Are the curves uniform with a bold smooth shade? 

Are the two sections looped differently, as in copy? 

Does the pen-holder cross the forefinger just back of 
the middle joint? 

Do you keep end of thumb opposite the first joint of 
the forefinger? 

Is the slant like copy? 

Are the curves uniform and down stroke correctly 
shaded? 

Does the pen-holder cross the second finger at the 
I'oot. of the nail ? 

Are the third and fourth fingers separated from the 
others, bent inward and kept sliding on the nails? 

Is the shading heaviest at the centre of the curve? 

Are you making an oval of the right proportions? 

Are you producing the movement with the shoulder 
muscles? 



GENERAL HINTS. 87 

Do you give sufficient time to practice of the forming 
movements before writing the exercise? 

Do you make a thorough drill on each exercise in 
order before attempting the next? 

GENERAL HINTS. 

Do not attempt too much — do not expect too much, 
on first introducing the movement drills, and do not get 
discouraged if the apparent results are not up to your 
anticipations. Especially do not look for any imme- 
diate results in the application to forms of writing. 

Eemember that the primary object is to encourage 
and develop certain definite habits of arm movement, 
which, when acquired and brought under control will 
aid in establishing a more practical mode of writing. 
Keep in mind that the quality of the movement must 
be measured by character of the form produced, and 
that as a rule the easier the pupil writes the better will 
be the style of this penmanship. 

Encourage home practice on the simple arm move- 
ments and so far as may be practicable seek to create a 
feeling of general interest in the new work by explain- 
ing clearly to each pupil the reason for and the specific 
object sought, in training the arm to do the work of 
the thumb and finger. 

You will doubtless in nearly every case have to con- 
tend against an accumulation of adverse 
habits; they may be the result of years of stronger than 
pernicious practice, and are probably closely 
interwoven and identified with every thought or action 
relating to writing; they will naturally be held to with a 
tenacity which you will find it difficult to break. But 



88 PENMANSHIP. 

as it will generally be found that these faults of position 
and movement involve the use of only one set of muscles, 
those controlling the action of tlie fingers and thumb, 
and as the arm governed by the shoulder muscles is 
much the stronger member, it is not only possible but 
certain that you can by patient effort build up a counter 
habit which by becoming stronger Avill overcome and in 
good time replace the bad ones. 

With plenty of faitli, an abundance of pluck, and an 
earnest desire to surmount all obstacles, you will be able 
to break away from those musty traditions which idealize 
form and symbolize penmanship as an art beyond the 
reach of common mortals, and find ample success in the 
new jjossibilities brought to light by the modern muscu- 
lar dispensation. 

This method of teaching penmanship is presented in the Wells 
System of Penmanship, four books at 10 cts. each. 

No. 1 presents a series of twenty-four oval exercises, combin- 
ing in simple form all of the curve movements employed in writ- 
ing- — and may be used to advantage through two terms. It is 
designed to teach arm movement, pure and simple, and being 
grouped progressively the exercise leads up naturally to the appli- 
cation. 

No. 2. The first half of this number contains a most valuable 
series of drills in large text hand, by means of which the straight 
line movement so essential to correct formation is thoroughly 
mastered, and a strength and character imparted to the arm 
movement, unattainable by any other method. Incidentally the 
correct form and analysis of all one-space letters are brought out. 

The second half introduces the standard capital letter move- 
ments systematically grouped and followed by drills on the letters 
themselves. 

No. 3 is designed through a series of well arranged exercises 
to develop and apply the sliding or lateral movement in connec- 



WELLS SYSTEM OF PENMAN^SHIP. 89 

tion with the arm action. The movement acquired by this drill 
is the essential element in all business or current hand writing, 
giving both freedom and smoothness to the text. This number 
introduces the forms of all small letters and capitals, with a com- 
plete drill on the numerals. 

No. 4 gives a very attractive series of extended capital move- 
ment drills, together with useful combinations of the capital 
letters in connection with words. The special object of this 
number is to promote freedom and speed in execution; it also 
contains a review of all the letters. 

Every line in the four numbers is intended for movement prac- 
tice, and, except when shading is introduced, may be written ex- 
clusively with the arm action. 

In the Syracuse schools, where the method has been in use 
since 1879, numbers 1, 2 and 4 are each used two terms, and 
number 3, four terms. 



FORM STUDY # DRAWING. 



I. GENEEAL PRINCIPLES. 

The term Drawing very inadequately expresses the 
nature of the study it is desirable to have taught in the 
schools under the name. When the study was first in- 
troduced into the schools, it was very properly called 
drawing, inasmuch as the work of pupils consisted princi- 
pally of drawing from printed copies, and the instruc- 
_ , ^ tion was devoted mainly to the training of 

Development -^ ° 

-of the sub- the hand and eye in copying. As the study 
has developed, however, under the influence 
of educational methods, the character of the instruction 
and the work of the pupils have entirely changed. 

The study of Form as observed in models of type-forms 
and in objects, has taken the place of the study of 
printed copies, and the instruction has been broadened 
so as to include the cultivation of the observing powers 
^1. .-• by the study of things on the one hand, and 

'Observation "^ . 

^andexpres- the expressive powers, through making, 
drawing, and language on the other; — draw- 
ing, however, beyond the elementary work, being the 
principal means used in expressing form knowledge and 
its applications. 

Thus it will be seen that drawing is only a feature in 
the important study of form, while in the applications 
of form knowledge, both in education and in practical 
The proper ^^^^' ^^ becomes the principal means of ex- 
titie. pressing thought. Hence, the proper title 

(90) 



THE NEW YORK SYLLABUS. 91 

for the study that is now desired in the schools is Form 
Study and Drawing, and not Drawing alone. 

The following syllabus arranged by the late Dr. John 
French has been adopted bv the State of New 
York in accordance with this idea of the Yorksyiia- 
study; and is divided into two parts. The 
first or elementary part is devoted to gaining a knowl- 
edge of the properties of forms from models of type- 
forms, and from objects based on them. In this divi- 
sion it is intended that the aim of the instruction shall 
be to develop the pupiFs powers of observation, and to 
give training in the means of expressing thought in re- 
gard to form, through making, drawing and language. 

In the second division the study of form in objects is 
still continued, but it is now the aim of the instruction 
to give expression to this form knowledge, and to make 
applications of it mainly through drawing. In this 
division the course of study prepares broadly for general 
education and for practical life. 

COURSE OF STUDY. 
Type-Solids. 
First year. 

1. Sphere. 4. Hemisphere. 

2. Cube. 5. Square Prism. 

3. Cylinder. 6. Right-Angled Triangular Prism. 
Second year. 

1. Ellipsoid. 4. Cone. 

2. Ovoid. 5. Pyramid. 

3. Equilateral Triangular Prism. 6. Vase Form. 
Method of study: 

a. By sight. 1. As wholes. 



92 FORM STUDY AND DRAWING. 

h. By touch. 2. As to faces. 

c. By arrangement. 3. As to surface. 

4. As to edges and corners. 
Ways of expressing: 

1. By language. 2. By making. 3. By drawing. 

Plain figures to be taught: 

1. Circle. 4. Right- Angled Triangle. 

2. Square. 5. Equilateral Triangle. 

3. Oblong. 6. Isosceles Triangle. 

Lilies are to he taught : 
As to directness: 

1. Straight. 2. Curved. 

As to position: As to relation: 

1. Horizontal. 1. Parallel. 

2. Vertical. 2. Perpendicular. 

3. Oblique. 3. Converging and Diverging. 

Third and fourth years: 

1. Continued study of the twelve type-solids; and, 

2. Study of natural forms based upon them. 

3. Teach reversed curves, symmetry and proportion. 

4. Drill in position, pencil-holding, pencil-move- 
ments, and quality of line. 

(a) The first half of the first year the work is to be 

mainly the study of the six type-forms, with 
some attempts at representation by stick and 

tablet-laying. No drawing as a regular exercise is to be 

required this half year. 

(b) In the second half of the first year simple exercises 
in paper-folding and paper-cutting are required. Draw- 
ing is to begin in this half year. 



THE SOLIDS AS WHOLES. 



93 



II. PRACTICAL EXERCISES. 

As the study of form is essential in this work, it is 
necessary at the outset for every student to ^^^333}^ ^^ 
be provided with models of the solids, in models, 
order to acquire the form-knowledge officially required. 




Fig 



In the illustration, Fig. 1, we see the type solids of 
the first year arranged in two groups, the group on the 
left containing the sphere, cube and cylinder — that on 
the right, the hemisphere, square prism, and right- 
angledtriangular. The six solids will furnish sufficient 
material for illustrating the subject here. 

1. Study of the Solids as Wholes. 
The first step in the Methods of Study is to take the 
solids as a whole, in accordance with the The solids as 
well-known educational maxim, first the ^^hoie. 
whole, then the parts. The study of a solid at first 
must not, therefore, deal with the details of surface, 
face, edge, and corner, but must consider the solid 
simply as a whole. 



94 



FORM STUDY AKD DRAWING. 



h. Study hy Touch. 
Grasp the sphere in one hand, roll it between the two 
hands, hold the sphere with the fingers of one hand,, 
turn it with the fingers of the other hand, figure 3. 




Fie:. 3. 



Fiff. 3. 



Hold the sphere tightly in one hand, grasp the cube 
with the other hand, figure 4. What impressions are 
received ? 

The sphere is smooth and pleasant to hold. 

The cube has sharp points and hurts the hands. 




Fi- 5. 



Grasp the cylinder in various ways. Fig. 5. 
The cylinder is pleasant to hold in one way — held in 
another way it cuts the hand. 

Move the fingers over the solids in different directions. 

The sphere feels the same all over — the fingers move 
easily all over it. 

The cube feels smooth in some places and sharpen 
others. 

The cylinder feels something like the sphere and 
something like the cube. 



STUDY BY TOUCH AND SIGHT. 95 

a., h. study hy Touch and hy Sight. 

Put the models on the desk or table — experiment with 
each separately as to rest or motion. 

The sphere will roll. 

The sphere will stand. 

The cube will not roll; it will slide and will stand. 

The cylinder will roll ; it will slide and it will stand. 

The sphere will roll in every direction and however 
placed. 

The cylinder will not roll when it is upright; when it 
is lying down, it will roll, but not in all directions like 
the sphere. 

Examine each model as to dimensions — how do its 
different dimensions compare with each other? 

In the sphere, the width from left to right, the width 
front to back, and the height are equal. 

In the cube, the width from left to right, the width 
from front to back, and the height are equal. 

In the upright cylinder, the width from left to right 
and the width from front to back are equal, but the 
height is greater than the width. 

After the children have passed the kindergarten age, 
it is desirable to introduce new features and For older 
greater variety. The sphere and cube can- <^^^^^^®^- 
not be changed in proportion; but the cylinder may 
vary very much in the proportion of the height to the 
other two dimensions. By using a cylinder higher than 
wide, two new elements are introduced, that of propor- 
tion and that of greater beauty of form. The cylinder, 
in which the height varies from the width is much more 
beautiful than the cylinder in which these dimensions 
are equal. It will be noticed that cylindric objects hav- 



96 



FORM STUDY AKD DRAWING. 



ing the three dimensions equal are very rare; but that 
those objects in which the height is greater or less than 
the width are very frequent. 




Fia. 6. 

In considering the elements of proportion in the cylin- 
der at this stage, it is desirable to choose a proportion 
easily appreciated. Therefore, the cylinder given for 
primary work has the very simplest proportion, that of 
1 to 2. 

Build up the sphere, cube, and cylinder and new rev- 
elations will be made concerning them. Try the ar- 
rangements illustrated and any others which may occur 
to you. What do you learn ? 







Fig. 7. 
The sphere can have but one position. 



TOUCH, SIGHT, AND ARRANGEMENT. 



97 



The cube and cylinder can have several positions. 
The sphere and the horizontal cylinder cannot be 
used as foundations in building. 

c. Study hy Arrange^nent. 

Try now to arrange the solids in rows; seek for pleas- 
ing arrangement. You will find yourselves, perhaps, 
working for an orderly and symmetrical arrangement, 
figure 8. 




Fm. 8. 

a. Study hy Sight. 
Hold each model up before you, figures 9 and 10; 
turn it in any way you please. How much of it do 
you see ? 

The sphere cannot be held so that more than half 
can be seen; neither can it be held so that less than 
half is visible. 





Fig. 9. 



Fig. 19. 



The cube and cylinder cannot be held so that more 
than half can be seen*; but they can be held so that 
less than half can be seen. Figures 11 and 12. 



* These statements need a little modification when very small models 
are used. 



98 



FORM STUDY AND DRAWING. 





Fig. 11. 



Fig. 12. 



Definitions. 



2, 3. Study as to Surface and Face. 
Surface in its geometric signification means simply 
length and breadth without thickness. But 
when applied to objects, it is used differently. 

The surface is the whole outside of a thing, A face is 
a limited part of a surface. 

The ordinary and general classification of surfaces 
Classification and faces is into two kinds, plane and curved. 

sur aces, 'j'j^ig jg q, broad classification; but for the 
purposes of Form-study, a more specific classification is 
necessary. Take the sphere in your hand; turn it over, 
you will find that it is round all over. If you apply a 
rule or any other straight edge to it, the rule will touch 
the sphere at but one point. And moreover this sur- 
face or face is continuous; turn the sphere as you will, 
you will find the surface unbroken by an edge. Such a 
surface or face is called round. 

Looking over your solids you will find another resem- 
Roundand bling the Sphere in part but it has two faces; 
rounding. ^^^^ ^^ these faccs is round in character as 
far as it goes, but it is not completely round and is 
limited by an edge. Such surfaces or faces, being in 
some ways like a sphere, are called rounding. A ruler 



SURFACE AND FACE. 



99 




applied to any one of them will toucli at but one point. 

Take now the cylinder; 
applying the ruler to its 
length, you find that the 
ruler touches the cylin- 
der throughout its entire 
length. Turn the ruler 
and apply it across the 
Fig. 13. f '0W same face and it touches at 

but one point. ^ You will find also another solid among 
the twelve that has a similar face. Such faces, that are 
round one way and straight one way are called curved 
faces. 

Take the cube; its faces are all 
flat, as if they had been planed off. 
Such faces are called plane faces. 
Make a list now of six solids classi- 
FiG. 14. fied according to the kind of faces,, 

beginning in this way: 

Roundjface; sphere. 
Rounding face. 





Fig. 15. 
Now study the objects in the illustration, figure 15, 
with reference to the kinds of faces. Remember that 
all Form-study should be carried on from the type- 
solids to its application in objects. 



100 



FORM STUDY AND DRAWIND. 



4. Study as to Edges and Corners. 
Make a list of the six solids classified according to 
•edges. Find all the solids having no edges, all the 
solids having straight edges, all the solids having curved 
edges, and write a classified list. Remember that in 
each of these vraious classified lists, every one of the 
twelve solids must be included. 

The classification as to corners is exceedingly easy. 

Find the solids, like those in the 
illustration, figure 16, and place 
them as there shown. Consider 
the two models together as one; 
study all the corners. Which of 
the corners are square? Which 
"^~ of the corners are sharp, that is, 
sharper than a square corner? 
Fig. 16. Which of the corners are blunt, 

that is, more blunt than a square corner? 

The limits of this volume will not permit us to carry 
the subject farther. The instruction here given is in 
accordance with the methods now approved by the 
leading educational men, and teachers who are ready 
to carry it farther will find it fully developed in the 
manuals of the Prang Educational Co., Boston. 




LANGUAGE. 



We are not of those who wish to do away with gram- 
mar; every teacher should understand it, and Grammar 
pupils who are able to comprehend and as- come1;oo^*^ 
similate it should be encouraged to study it. ^^^^y- 
But a majority of pupils have formed a distaste for it 
because it was introduced at too early an age. Lessons 
in Language should receive attention from the first ; 
but they should be free from all definitions, grammati^ 
cal rules, analysis and parsing; these only clog the- 
memory and signify nothing but mere notions of general 
terms. 

The object of the study of grammar is "To teach the 
science of language, and the art of correct expression/' 
The study of our text books on grammar object of 
does not, as a rule, attain these results, grammar. 
Why? Because grammar, proper, is a study of only 
the science of language. Scientific grammar belongs to 
the advanced course; before the age of twelve years,, 
pupils should study only the art of expression. 

In Language the duty of preparing the soil, and 
planting the seed, is with the primary teacher. Example more 
Otily correct senteiices should be used in the ^^*" precept, 
presence of the pupil; if the teacher do not err in this, 
direction, the ear becomes accustomed to correct forms 
of expression, and the child will unconsciously acquire 
them. This does not come from classifying, conjugat- 

(101) 



102 LAN^GUAGE. 

ing, and declining. Pupils must learn the art of lan- 
guage^ and through the art come up to the science. 

Language is a growth. It cannot be stereotyped. 
Language and thought have reciprocal influence. Right 
habits of language produce right thinking, and vice 
versa. The language of a person is a test and evidence 
of his thoughts and mental culture. The chief cause 
of alarm is on account of the woful ignorance of Eng- 
lish and the faulty use of our mother tongue among 
nominally intelligent and educated people — even among 
teachers, who of all others should use pure language. 
The teacher is responsible for the language of his pupils. 

We acquire language through imitation; the pupil 
who has always heard good language, will 
English is use good language; his ability to use good 
language does not depend upon his knowledge 
of grammar, but upon his having heard good English, 
read good English, and practised good English. With- 
out further comment upon language we would say, that 
whatever else may be omitted in teaching — no teacher 
can afford to disjjense ivith the language exercise. 

' ' I liad rather speak five words with my understanding, that 
by my voice I might teach others also, than a thousand words in 
an unknown tongue." — /. Cor. XVI. 19. 

SUGGESTIVE METHODS. 

/. Directio7is. 
1. Ask the children to tell the names of the objects — 
a. In the school-room, the yard, the house, etc. 
J. Made of wood, iron, gold, wool, cotton, etc. 
c. Manufactured by the carpenter, moulder, etc. 



OBJECTS AS WHOLES. 103 

2. Ask the pupil to tell the names of the parts of 
things. 

3. To name some of the quantities of things. 

4. To tell the uses of things. 

//. Cautions. 

1. Insist on correct articulation. 

2. Form correct ideas; then insist on the intelligent 
use of the terms. 

3. Let every is exercise bear upon the correct use 
of language. 

///. Results. 

1. A wide vocabulary. 

2. Eeady and correct use of words. 

3. Increased mental power. 

Objects as a Whole. 

The pupils will at first mention the names of things 
in the wildest confusion. The teacher lis- gystemm 
tens patiently for a few seconds, then kindly naming, 
bids them to begin at a certain part of the room and to 
speak one at a time, and name things in order. 

In the answers, constant attention must be paid to the 
pronunciation of words — distinct and correct correct 
articulation being one of the first requisites Pronunciation, 
of correct language. Yet this should not be insisted 
upon to such an extent as to make it irksome to the 
pupils. The child can attain perfection only gradually, 
and the teacher should encourage but not drive. In- 
deed, the child needs no driving; he will work cheer- 
fully and zealously with the leader who has learned the 
art of working with the child. 



104 LANGUAGE. 

As the names of objects are given by the children, 
r -A ^ ^ the teacher should write these names in col- 

Incidental 

spelling. umns on the board, requiring the children to 

spell each word as it is written, assisting or correcting 
when necessary. 

Let the children say something about each object, the 
Simple teacher helping them to determine how far 

statements, ^j^g terms they apply are appropriate. The 
teacher should add to these descriptions the names, and 
lead the children on to the formation of simple statements 
in their simplest forms. 

In the written exercise, the children should be led to 
Reproduction observe that each sentence begins with a cap- 
exercises. -^^j letter and ends with a period. The 
teacher will use judgment in the assignment of the di- 
rections in each lesson. 

The directions should be written on the board one at 
a time, and the pupils requested to follow the direc- 
tions, and read the statements from the slate. After an 
exercise has been carefully examined, the teacher should 
require the class to reproduce it. 

The children may be supplied with little books, in 
which to write out these lessons at home. For some 
time they should not be required to originate anything 
for themselves, but merely to reproduce that which has 
been taught in school. They will find pleasure in doing 
that which they can do well. 

When the objects in the room have formed the sub- 
jects of such lessons, those in the play-ground, the 
street, or in the fields, may be resorted to, gradually 
extending the circle to more remote objects. 



PARTS OF OBJECTS. 105 

At least a dozen lessons of this description should be 
given. 

• Parts of Objects. 

After giving lessons on objects as a whole the teacher 
will ask the pupils to name the parts of objects^ and the 
number of those parts. This is a second step. 

In these exercises, the teacher should be careful not to let 
the children call that a part which is merely a property or an 
accident. A part of a material object is a portion of it ; if the 
part is removed, the object will be diminished in size and weight. 
It is improper, then, to consider as parts the lines and surfaces of 
objects. 

The exercises on the parts of objects should be varied 
in many ways, so as to arouse and maintain a lively in- 
terest in the pupils. 

For example— the parts of a pin are the head, shaft, 
and ^^oint ; of a chair, /e^5, rounds, seat, and hack. 

The first step to be taken in language is to obtain 
ideas. The second is the proper expression r^j^g ^^^ 
of the ideas when obtained. ^^®p^- 

To acquire ideas, it is necessary to cultivate habits of 
observation; to use the eyes in noticing not only entire 
objects, but also their different parts; to consider their 
qualities, uses, operations and effects, to- observatioa 
gether with their relations to other things. ^*^°^®^ ^*- 
The mind employed in such processes acquires material 
for its own operations, and develops ideas and thoughts 
as it were spontaneously. 

For this exercise in language it is proposed that the 
children enumerate the parts of some visible object, 
something as follows: 

H 



10b LANGUAGE. 




A House. 




Its parts are: 






stone, sills, 


plates, 


ceilings, 


mortar, posts, 


rafters, 


floors, etc. 


joints, doors, 


shingles, 




beams, nails. 


chimneys, 




Glass. 




Its qualities: 






It is hard, 


inodorous. 




solid, 


colorless, 




smooth, 


heavy, 




bright. 


durable, 




transparent, 


inflexible, 




brittle. 


insoluble. 




cold. 


dry, 




tasteless, 


fusible, etc. 




Its uses: 






For windows to admit the light; 






For spectacles to assist the sight; 






For useful vessels, such as goblets, pitchers, bottles, 


phials, lamps, 


etc. 







Thus far we have endeavored to teach the pupils the 
Qualities power of rapid, complete, and accurate obser- 
of objects. vation, and to prepare them for concise, com- 
plete, and accurate description. The teacher in order to 
give the children information on qualities of objects, so 
that they may form correct impressions, should subject 
the object to more or less complicated experiments. 
The names of some of these qualities, e. g., compressi- 
bility, flexibility, etc., must be fully illustrated. 

This exercise will furnish opportunity for the teacher 
to invent means of entertaining children while instruct- 
ing them. 



LESSONS ON WORDS. 107 

Interrogate the children closely upon the uses of 
objects, and require them to write short compositions 
about objects, to tell the name, parts, qualities, and uses. 

The teacher must have a plan of presenting subjects. 
Experience daily proves that an unprepared 

The teacher 

lesson, or what may be termed extempore must have a 
teaching, is sure to be diffuse and indifferent; 
beside the teacher must never fail to enter the class 
well prepared, not only in regard to the object on 
which he intends to exercise his class, but upon the 
ORDER in which the exercises are to be conducted, and 
upon the manner in which the individual pupils are to 
be interrogated. He must himself have clear and dis- 
tinct ideas ; must observe accurately and speak carefully, 
concisely y and correctly. 

Without these requisites the teacher will fail in lan- 
guage. Let him study carefully Fitches admirable lit- 
tle book on ^*The Art of Questioning." 

Words as Objects of Observation. 
/. Directions. 

1. Give the children words similar in pronunciation, 
but different in spelling. 

2. Ask the children — 

u. To find the words in the spelling-book. 

b. To write all the words they know, that have 
the words mentioned in them. 

c. To make a spelling-lesson of the words named. 

d. To write statements, using the words named. 

e. To write a composition, using the statements. 

//. Cautions. 
1. Require the children to answer in full statements.^ 



108 LANGUAGE. 

2. Give constant attention to distinct articulation. 

3. Correct the common errors in pronunciation. 

4. Make the exercise pleasant and instructive. 

///. Results. 

1. The children will understand the meaning of words. 

2. They will learn correct, simple expression. 

3. They will learn how to write and to spell. 

An exact copy of a lesson given in the Primary De- 
A real partmeut of the State Normal school in 

exercise. Buffalo, New York, is here appended. 

The words for practice, leech and heach. List of 
words, given by the pupils: 

/. Beech. II. Beach. 

1. beech-tree, 1. sand-beach, 

2. beech-nut, 2. shell-beach, 

3. beech-leaf, 3. pebbly-beach, 

4. beech-wood, 4. beach-timber, 

5. beech-root, 5. Rye beach, 

6. beech-twig, 6. ocean-beach. 

7. beech-bark, 

8. beech-oil. 

Sentences Weitten by the Pupils. 
/. Beech ; a tree. 

1. The beech-tvees make a nice shade in summer. 

2. The beech has a smooth green bark. 

3. The squirrel hides beech-nuts in his hole for winter. 

4. Beech-wood snaps in the fire. 

//. Beach; a sandy shore. 

1. Year before last we all went to Rye beach in vaca- 
tion. 

2. 0, see the pretty pebbles I picked up on the beach ! 



THREE GEKUIN^E COMPOSITIONS. 109 

3. What fun it is to walk barefoot on the dry warm 
sand^ down on the heacli. 

Three of their Compositioks. 

1. A beech-tree is a very large forest tree. It lias little three- 
cornered beech-nuts on it, I was out in the country once and I 
saw very many little shells of the beech-nuts where the squirrels 
had been. The beech-wood snaps when you put it into the fire, 
and makes a very hot fire. 

2. I went down to the Beach one day and the sand was all smooth. 
I was on the Beach of Lake Michigan once and made little houses 
of the beach pebbles in the sand. Rye Beach is where the people 
^o to bathe in the summer. 

3. A squirrel is a animal that eats beech-nuts. When you burn 
beech-wood it crackles and snaps all on the carpet like ashes. 
The beech-tree grows to be very large and when it is very large 
men go and chop them into wood the beech-nut is very good to 
€at I had some twice and they were good sometimes people get 
oil from the nuts ; beech leaves are good to chew they have a 
sour taste they are very good ; beech nuts are as big as the end of 
the finger they are three-cornered the beech-nut tree grows in 
Europe and america. 

The last was written by the youngest girl in the class, 
aged eight. All are printed just as written. 

Children from eight to ten years of age Avill do this 
work, if the teacher directs them. 

The teacher should spell and pronounce such words, 
as the children cannot, and also tell their 
exact meanings and illustrate them. If pos- 
sible, let him draw a picture at the board, — an indifferent 
one is better than none. 

The object is to teach spelling and writing as well as 
correct simple expression. 

The exercise will not prove irksome, but pleasant and 
instructive. 



110 LANGUAGE. 

All erroneous expressions uttered by the children 
should be immediately corrected and the proper words 
fixed upon the mind by repetition. 

In the daily work of the school-room, all definitions 
of the meaning of words, and all descriptions of places, 
objects, or events, whether given by the teacher to the 
children, or elicited from them, should be clothed in 
simple and definite language, and fixed in the memory 
by repetition. 

The children should be trained to give complete 
answers to all questions put to them. Experience 
teaches that nothing more tends to make an idea clear 
to the mind, and to render it a permanent possession, 
than the act of clothing it in accurate language. 

Monosyllabic answers, as ^^yes" and *^no,^^ should be 
rejected, except when they express all that can be said 
on the subject. 

The value of such instruction has not been sufficiently 
appreciated, but it is hoped that these lessons will show 
how suited it is to promote mental training. 

OoMPARisojT OF Objects. 
/. Directions. 

1. Hold an object before the children and ask them 
to say something about it. 

2. Place objects of the same kind in their hands, and 
let the pupils describe them; first in oral, second in 
written description. 

3. Let the pupils compare objects, and tell their dif- 
ferences, as paper and leather, lead and iron, wood and 
stone, etc. 



COMPARISON OF OBJECTS. Ill 

4. Let the pupils ascribe different qualities to one and 
the same object. 

5. Let the pupils ascribe the same quality to various 
objects. 

6. Let them apply many descriptive terms, applicable 
to various objects. 

7. Let them point out the value of each word and 
state what it adds to the description. 

//. Caution. 

1. See that the children form correct ideas. 

2. Correct all improper expressions. 

3. Fix the new word in the mind by frequent reviews. 

4. Assist the children in determining the suitability 
of words, correcting when necessary. 

5. Encourage the children to reproduce lessons at 
home. 

III. A ims. 

1. To train the children to see. 

2. To teach them to compare. 

3. To train them to do. 

4. To train them to tell what they see and do. 

In the oral description let the children give the gen- 
eral properties, as the form and color; then 
the parts, properties and uses. In the writ- 
ten description require the work to be expressed neatly, 
giving attention to spelling^ writing, capital letters and 
punctuation. 

Let the teacher write the name of some familiar ob- 
ject on the board, and call upon the chil- combination 
dren to apply to it various qualities, writing of statements. 
them as they give them. It may be necessary to assist 



112 LAKGUAGE. 

the children in determining the suitability of the quali- 
ties, and also in spelling the more difficult words. 

We may suppose a lesson in which the given name 
is *^' paper". It would present itself in such a form as 
this: — 

The paper is white, 

The paper is thin, 

The paper is smooth, 

The paper is pliable, etc. 

The teacher should next lead the children to notice 
that the word '^^ paper" need only be written once, and 
that the four sentences may be contracted into one. 
Then the teacher directed by the children writes: — 

Paper is w1iite,'4hin, smooth, and pliable . 

The children then read this over, and are led to 
perceive the necessity of commas in those places where 
the words ^"^ paper is ^' are omitted, and also the use of 
the word ''^and " between the last two w^ords of the sen- 
tence. Cover the board and require the children to re- 
produce the lesson. 

When the same quality is attributed to many objects, 

it would present itself in such a form as this: — 

Glass is brittle. 
Chalk is brittle. 
Coal is brittle. 
Olass, cJialk, and coal are brittle. 

Iron is hard. 
Flint is hard. 
Glass is hard. 
Iron, flint, and glass are hard. 

The children should be led to notice the stops as be- 
fore, and the change of the word '' is " to ^^are.^' 



GENERAL TERMS. 113 

Let the children observe that each sentence begins 
with a capital letter, and ends with a period. Examine 
each slate, and require the children to reproduce cor- 
rect copies. 

Be sure the children observe that words used in a 
series are separated by a comma. 

Eequire the children to write many sentences, until 
this fact is fixed in the mind. 

A LESsoiq- ON" General Terms. 

1. Ask the pupil to give a name that will apply to 
everything which they can perceive. 

2. Ask the pupils — 

a. To classify the diiferent kind of matter. 
h. To name the different classes. 

c. To name the things that belong to the -indi- 
vidual classes. 

d. To observe and tell what animals and vegetables 
do. 

e. To notice and tell what animals can do which 
the vegetable cannot do. 

/. To observe the differences between the food of 

plants, and that of animals. 
g. To write a statement using the words named. 
li. To write a short composition, combining the 

statements. 

3. Cautions. 

a. ^^ Never assist the child to a thing that it can 

do itself'^ with reasonable effort. 
t). Remember that it is a difficult thing to form a 

thought and express it. 

4. Results. 

a. It will arouse the curiosity of the pupils. 



114 LANGUAGE. 

h. It will enlist their undivided attention. 

c. It will cause them to observe closely. 

d. It will teach them the importance of classifica- 
tion. 

The aim of these language lessons is to enlarge the 
Aim to train circlc of the pupiFs knowledge respecting 
the mind. ^^^ objects brought under inquiry. The 
true aim is not only to impart knowledge rightly, and 
teach the elements of order, but to tram the j^otuers of 
the pupil. This is its dignity; this is its peculiar dis- 
tinction. The main design is the growth and develop- 
ment of the whole being. 

In order to teach language effectively we must begin 
the process, as nature meant we should, by furnishing 
the children with the elements out of which language is 
created, namely, a knowledge of material things. 

The teacher should place upon the table a number of 
articles that belong to the mineral, vege- 
table and animal kingdoms. He should ask 
the children to examine them carefully, and to tell a 
name that will apply to all of them. (It would be well 
to ask the children to bring different things from their 
homes.) 

The children will give the following names: Articles, 
objects, substances ; they may not be able to give the 
te7'm that you wish, which is '^matter." Write the 
words on the board, and tell the children that the term 
MATTER is the one that you wish. 

After the children become familiar with this term, you 

may ask them to put all the objects of the 

ugges ions. ^.^^^ -j^-j^^ • ^^^^ groups. They will learn 

to classify objects — an important lesson. The teacher 



PARTS OF SPEECH. US- 

will then ask the children to name the different groups, 
viz: mmeral, vegetable, and anwial. (It may prove a 
surprise to some of the children, that they belong to the^ 
animal kingdom.) 

Many lessons may be given, requiring the children 
to name things that belong to the different classes. 

The teacher should require the children to bring in 
long lists of these names ; an exercise of this nature will 
arouse their emulation. 

Let the children observe that the animals move about^ 
and plants are stationary; that animals and plants take 
food, breathe, grow, and die; that plants feed on min- 
erals; and animals on vegetables and animals. 

The teacher should be careful about assisting the 
children; it may be well to let a question remain unan- 
swered for a day or so and see if the pupils cannot find 
out the answer by a few hours' study. 

The Parts of Speech. 

We introduce at this point a new class of objects, viz: 
Words in regard to some of their offices. We have 
examined the nature and functions of other things and 
have made use of the facts thus obtained as material for 
language development. Words, as will be seen, can be 
made to give us a large stock of working material to be 
used in advancing the Art of Language. 

The Noun. 

Teacher, — What is this? 

Pupil, — A bell. 

T. Spell the word bell. 

(Pupil spells the word, and teacher writes it on the 
board. Obtain and dispose of, similarly, the following: 
book, pencil, cup, Henry, Aurora.) 



116 LANGUAGE. 

T. What are these on the board? 

P. They are words. 

T, Pronounce this word: Henry. 

P. Henry. 

T. When you see or hear this word, of what do you 
think? 

P. I think of a boy. 

T, What boy? 

P. My brother. 

T. Why, when you hear this word, do you think of 
him ? 

P. Because that is his name. 

T. What kind of a word is it? 

P. A name word. 

T. Of what is it the name? 

P. It is the name of a person. 

T. Of what is the word cup a name? 

P. The name of a thing. 

T. Find other words upon the board that are the 
names of things. (Pupils find pencil, book, bell.) 

T, Of what do you think when you speak this word? 
(referring to the word Aurora. ) 

P. Of a town. 

T. Why do you think of a place? 

P. Because it is the name of a place. 

T. Find another word and tell of what that is the 
name. 

P, Wednesday is the name of a day. 

T. What is each of these words? 

P. A name. 

T. Does any one know another word that means the 
same as name? (No hands raised.) 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 117 

T. You may call these words nouns. (Pupils spell.) 
T. What is a noun? 
P. A name is a noun. 

T. Give me twelve names. (Pupils give names and 
spell them.) 

For to-morrow write: 

1. Ten words that are the names of persons. 

2. Ten words that are the names of things. 

3. Ten words that are the names of places. 

Tfie Common Noun. 

T. What is this? (touching one of the boys.) 

P. A boy. 

T. What are you ? (addressing a boy. ) 

P. A boy. (Address several boys and obtain similar 
replies.) 

T, By what name may all of you be called? 

P. Boys. 

T. A boy may open the door. (Several boys start to 
obey.) 

T. Why do so many of you start when I speak? 

P. We don^t know which one you mean. 

r. Why? 

P. Because the name belongs to each of us. 

T. What name belongs to each of you ? 

P. Boy. 

T. What have you learned to call a word that is a 
name? 

P. A noun. 

T. Why is it a noun? 

P. Because it is a name. 

T. Because the name applies to each of you what kind 
of a name is it? 



118 LANGUAGE. 

P, A common name. 

T. What kind of a noun is it? 

P. A common noun. 

T. What is a common noun? 

P. A common name is a common noun. 

T. But when is a name common? 

P. When it applies to each one of the same kind of 
objects. 

T. What, then, is a common noun? 

P. A name that applies to each one of the same kind 
of objects is a common noun. 

T. Peter, bring me five things that have a common 
name. What are these called? 

P. Books. 

T. What name may be given to each boy and girl in 
this school? 

P. Pupil. 

T. What common name may be given to Miss j^ 

Miss , and Miss ? 

P. Teacher. Lady. Woman. 

T. What kind of nouns are pencil, pupil, teacher, 
lady, boy, girl? 

P. Common nouns. 

For to-morrow write a list of: 

1. Twenty common nouns that are names of articles 
of furniture. 

2. Twenty common nouns that are names of tools. 

3. Twenty common nouns that are names of vegeta- 
bles. 

4. Twenty common nouns that are names of minerals. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 119 

The Proper Noun. 

T, Jane, write your name on the board. (Pupil does 
so. ) What have you written ? 

P. I have written my name. 

T. Why do you say ' my name?* 

P. Because it belongs to me. 

T, What other person in your family has the same 
name? 

P. No other person has the same name. 

T. Class: why do you think a different name from 
any other in her family was given ? 

P. To tell her from the others. 

T, To how many of her family does the name Jane 
belong? 

P, It belongs to one. 

T. What is this name? 

P. This name is a noun. 

T. What is a noun? 

P. A name is a noun. 

T, Because this name belongs to one only, what kind 
of a noun is it? 

P. It is a particular noun. 

T, You may call it a proper noun. What is a proper 
noun? 

P. A particular name is a proper noun. 

T. To how many does a proper noun belong? 

P. It belongs to one. 

T. Give a name that is common to those three things. 
(Pointing to a pile of books.) 

P. Book. 

T. Give the proper name. 



120 LANGUAGE. 

'^ P. Monroe^s First Reader^ Webster's Dictionary, 
Thomson's Arithmetic. 

T. Open your readers and find five proper nouns. 
(Pupils do so. ) With what kind of letter is each begun? 

P. With a capital letter. 

T. Find a proper noun that does not begin with a 
capital letter. (Pupils fail to find one.) 

1. Write ten proper nouns that are the names of men. 

2. Write ten proper nouns that are the names of 
women. 

3. Write ten proper nouns that are the names of 
places. 

4. Write ten proper nouns that are the names of 
divisions of time. 

The Possessive Form of Nouns, 

T. What is this? 

P. That is a hat. 

T. Whose hat is it? 

P. William's. 

T. Make a statement of what you say. 

P. That is William's hat. (Some of the pupils write 
this statement on the board; the others write it on their 
slates. ) 

T. What is the word William's? 

P. A noun. 

T, What kind of a noun? 

P. A proper noun. 

T, For what is it used in the sentence? 

P. To tell whose hat. To tell who owns the hat. 

T. You may say possesses, instead of owns. 

P. To tell who possesses the hat. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 121 

T. Speak the word as we commonly hear it. (Pupils 
do so.) 

T. Speak the word as it is here used. (Pupils do so.) 

[This should be repeated^, with this and other nouns, 
until the pupils perceive clearly, and can state the dif- 
ference between the sounds of the two forms. ] 

T. Open your books and find names used as we have 
used the name William in this sentence. (Pupils find 
many names and pronounce them.) 

T. What is the difference in the sounds of these 
Avords, and the same words as they are commonly called ? 
(Pupils state.) 

T. What do you find in the printed word to represent 
that difi'erence? 

P. An apostrophe and a letter s. 

T, As you look at the words William and William^s, 
what difference can you see? 

P. One has more letters than the other. — A dif- 
ference in the size of them. — A difference in the form 
of them. 

T. Because William is the way we commonly use the 
Avord, what form may we call it? 

P. The common form. 

T. What shall we call the other form? (Pupils do not 
know. ) 

T, You may call this the possessive form of the noun. 
(Pupils spell the word.) 

1. Write ten common nouns in the possessive case. 

2. Write ten proper nouns in the possessive case. 

In like manner develop all the Parts of Speech, as the 
adjective, pronoun, verb, etc., and mahe immediate a/p- 



122 LANGUAGE. 

plication of the terms developed. This will lead the 
pupils pleasantly into the Science of Language so that 
it will become a rational study. 

The Comma — Its Use in a Succession of Particulars. 

T. I want you to tell by writing on your slates, five 
things that this knife has. 

(The pupils at the age of those for whom these les- 
sons are intended will, almost without exception, write 
five sentences: 

This knife has a handle. 

This knife has a blade. 

This knife has a back. 

This knife has a spring. 

This knife has rivets.) 

T. How many sentences have you written? 

P. Five. 

T. See how many times you have written the words 
this, knife, has, and a. Can you not shorten the work 
by putting all you have to say in one sentence? 

(Pupils write: 

"The knife has a handle and blade and back and spring, 
and rivets.) 

T. Listen closely. I am going to ask you another 
question. What is the use of the words handle, blade, 
back, spring, and rivets? AVhat did you discover? 

P. You said and only before the last word. 

T. Now I think you can give the sentence that you 
have been writing, and have it just right. Who will 
try? (Hands are raised.) 

P. The knife has a handle, blade, back, spring, and 
rivets. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 123 

T. That is right. All repeat. (Pupils repeat, and 
write on their slates. ) 

T. There is a question unanswered. Who can give 
it? (Hands are raised.) 

P. What is the use of the words handle, blade, back, 
spring, and rivets? 

T. Eight. Who will ansAver it? 

P. To show what the knife has. 

T. Because they are all used for that purpose what 
may we say about them? 

P. They are used in the same way. They are used 
alike. 

T. Now turn to your books, and find words that are 
used alike, and see how they are written; then we shall 
know whether our work is right or not. What do you 
discover? 

P. There is a comma after each of the words except 
the last. (Pupils correct the work on their slates.) 

T. You say these words are used in the same way. 
How many words in this sentence are used in the same 
way? 

P. Five. Many. Several. 

T. Which now makes the best answer to my ques- 
tion — five, many, or several? 

P. Several. 

T, I think so. We have learned something about 
the use of the comma, and I want you to tell me what 
it is. 

P. When several words are used in the same way, a 
comma is placed after each except the last. 

(The teacher ought now to suggest many kinds of 
sentences containing successions of particulars, and 



124 LANGUAGE. 

have them all written and carefully criticised. Drill on 
this lesson should continue several days. ) 

Themes for Composition. 

/. Directions, 

1. The teacher will select a familiar theme and ask 
suggestive questions. 

2. Write the correct answers on the board. 

Water, 
a. Where does the water come from? 
h. How does it reach the clouds? 

c. In what form is it carried? 

d. What causes it to fall to the earth? 

e. Is rain useful? 

/. In what way is it useful? 

A Journey, 
a. The starting point. 
h. Time of departure. 

c. Mode of travel. 

d. Destination. 

e. Appearance of the country. 
/. Kind of trees, flowers, etc. 
g. Return. 

Caution. — Enlarge upon the idea of criticising and 
correcting by the pupils. 

Miscellaneous Exercises. 
/. Directions. 

1. Tell or read a short story, and require the pupils 
to reproduce it. 

2. Write a letter to a wealthy merchant in New York 
city, requesting a situation as salesman in his store. 



THEMES FOR COMPOSITIONS. 125 

3. Write an advertisement describing a lost child. 

4. Write a composition on each of the following 
proverbs, explaining its meaning, and showing how far 
it is trne: — 

a. '^ Fortune favors the brave." 

b. " K\\ is well that ends well.'' 

c. '^ Strike while the iron is hot." 

d. ^■^ A little i3ot is soon hot." 

e. ^' Out of sight, out of mind." 

5. Take some poem of several stanzas, and Avrite your 
opinion of it. 

6. Write a letter to the Neio York TimeSy giving an 
account of a railway accident. 

7. Write an allegory comparing tobacco to a thief. 

Perhaps as easy a method as any to induce the 
younger class of pupils to make their first Reproduction 
efforts at composition is to read or relate to ^^ stones. 
them a short but interesting story, and desire them to 
write an outline of it, as full and extended as they can 
within a given time. In such an exercise the thoughts 
are already furnished, and the only labor of the pupil is 
to place them in their proper connection and clothe 
them with good language. In an exercise of this kind 
the pupil takes one of his first lessons in generalization; 
he learns to separate and classify facts, selecting the 
most important, and rejecting those of little conse- 
quence. A similar course should be observed by stu- 
dents in history, writing each day a fair outline of the 
subject matter contained in the pages of their lesson. 



126 language. 

Suggestive Abstracts. 
Abraham Lincoln. 

I. His Earl}'^ Life. 

a. Birth. 

h. Childhood. 

c. Youth. 

d. Manhood. 

e. Difficulties. 

II. His After Life. 

a. Occupation. 

h. Election to the Presidency. 

c. Administration. 

d. Assassination. 

e. Burial. 
III. His Character. 

a. Simplicity. 
h. Uprightness. 

The Influence of Kind Words. 
I. A Kind "Word costs nothing, yet its influence may last 
through a life time, 
a. Kind words at home. 
h. in school. 

c. to friends. 

d. to our inferiors. 

e. to strangers. 
/. to animals. 

II. The Influence upon the Speaker. 

a. They gain him friends. 

h. They gain him a reputation for amiability. 

c. They keep alive his kindly feelings. 

d. They produce images of beauty in his mind. 

e. They win for him love and gratitude. 

III. The Influence upon the Hearer. 

a. They shame him out of anger. 
h. They comfort him in grief. 
c. They soothe him in pain. 



SUGGESTIVE ABSTRACTS. 127 

IV. The Influence upon Children. 
V. The Influence upon the Poor. 
VI. The Influence upon Other People. 

a. The morose. 

h. The misanthropic. 

c. The wicked. 

d. The weak. 
VII. Uses of Kind Words. 

VIII. Value of Kind Words. 

IX. Compared with : 

a. Angry words. 
h. Cold words. 

e. Hot words. 

d. Bitter words. 

e. Vain words, idle words, empty words, profane words, 

&c. 

X. Conclude by any instances you may be able to recall of the 
influence of kind words, in your experience ; as, an anecdote or 
incident. 

Politeness. 

I. Definition. 

Ease and grace of manner in the expression of a desire to please 
others, and a careful attention to their wants and wishes. 

II, Politeness exacts of us: 

a. Unselfishness, in our care for the comfort or pleasure of 
others. 

h. Elegance of manner, in our desire to please by our de- 
portment. 

c. Deference to ward our superiors, either in age, station or 

importance. 

d. Kindness to our inferiors, either children or servants. 
III. Value of Politeness. 

a. Proceeds from the impulse of a kindly nature, proving 
a good heart. 

h. Will admit of a great degree of polish, proving a finished 
education. 

c. Gives respect where it is due, and thus Mans considera- 
tion in return. 



128 LAN-QUAGE. 

d. Gives kiuduess to inferiors, and thus wins respect and 

gratitude from them. 

e. Promotes good feeling among friends. 
/, Assuages discord, even among enemies. 

IV. Natural Politeness. 

a. Proceeds from the heart without instruction. 
h. Often to be found among the rough and uncultivated, 
even if more clumsily expressed than among the edu- 
cated and refined. 
V. Acquired Politeness. 

a. The observance of points of etiquette and good breeding 

by the well educated. 

b. Mere polish of manner, often covering a selfish, hard 

nature. 
VI. Politeness in different Countries. 

a. The etiquette of one nation often considered rude or in- 
sulting in another. 

h. Every race, even the most savage, has some form of 
outward politeness. 

c. Name any peculiar form of etiquette you may have seen 

or read of. 
VII. Politeness in Children and Young People is one of the most 
winning and graceful of attributes. It is a mistaken 
idea to fancy rudeness a token of manliness or bravery. 
Bayard, one of the bravest of cavaliers, was one of the 
most finished gentlemen mentioned in history, 
VIII. Perfect Politeness may be defined as the union of natural 
politeness of the heart, and the acquired politeness of 
Etiquette and Custom. Holmes describes the combi- 
nation: 

" So gentle blending courtesy and art. 
That wisdom's lips seemed borrowing friendship's heart." 

Wisdo7n and Wealth. 

I. Wealth may be defined as: 
a. Great possessions. 
h. A large amount of worldly good. 



SUGGESTIVE ABSTRACTS. 129 

II. Mere Money may, it is true, be considered as Wealth, but 
are there not more precious possessions, worldly goods 
far more valuable? 

III. Poverty, it is true, will impede our search for Wisdom, as 

we shall lack: 

a. Time for study, if obliged to earn a livelihood. 

h. The means of buying books. 

c. The advantage of good instruction. 

IV. But Wisdom once gained is preferable to Money, for these 

reasons: 

a. Once gained it cannot be taken from us, while money 

may be lost by a thousand reverses. 
h. It can never be given to us, but we must taste the sweets 

of exertion and enjoy the reflection that we have 

earned our treasures. 

c. We can never acquire wisdom by theft, or inherit it 

when dishonestly acquired, as we might mere money. 

d. Wisdom is independence. The man who has acquired 

knowledge can in a great measure control his own 
future. His opportunities for earning money are 
largely increased; his pleasures lie in his love of read- 
ing and study, and are therefore always open to him ; 
he is respected by his fellow men ; he never feels the 
weariness of the vacant mind; if reverses come to 
him his wisdom enables him to meet them bravely 
and often to conquer them. 

V. Conclusion. 

In starting, therefore, in life, the possession of wisdom is 
far preferable to the possession of mere money, if ignorance is the 
price of the latter. A fool can never win honor or even respect 
though he were to possess unbounded riches; all the pleasures that 
can be purchased are nothiug compared to the delights of a culti- 
vated mind and refined intellect. 

Seek, therefore, to gain wisdom, that you may possess the 
true wealth that can never be taken away from you, that you will 
never lose, that you may impart freely to others, and in so im- 
parting increase j^our own store rather than diminish it. 



130 LANGUAGE. 

Whose life most brightly illuminates the pages of the past — 
the wise man's or the rich man's? 

In the history of the future, aim rather to figure as a Socrates 
than as a Croesus. 

Compare the life of the wisest man you can remember, and 
that of the richest man. 

Knowledge is Power; Wisdom is Wealth. 

Absent Friends. 

I. Introduction. 

In this world of change, every one is called upon to feel the 
pain of separation from friends endeared by association or acts of 
kindness. The dearest friends are severed by circumstances, 
often having the ocean between them. 

II. Treatise. 

a. Affection is kept warm by kind remembrance. 

b. Tender recollections will dwell upon words spoken by 

the absent, and the memory of their acts will be cher- 
ished with pleasure. 

c. Their return to us, or our joining them, will be antici- 

pated with delight. 

d. The circumstances under which separation took place 

will seriously affect our thoughts. 

1. Parting in anger. Time heals rage. 

2. Parting in affection. Time should increase love. 

3. Parting in sorrow. Anticipated joy of meeting 

again. 

e. Separation by death. 

1. Memor}^ of friends then becomes holy and pleasant. 

2. Faults are forgotten when the grave closes over 

them. 

3. But few homes are without their uuforgotten dead,^ 

whose memory is associated with some spot or hour. 
/. Compare the pain of parting and the pleasure of meeting. 

1. After a journey. 

2. After years of separation. 

3. Hope of reunion in another world. 

' ' The joy of meeting pay the pangs of absence ; 

Else who couid bear it? " [Rowe. 



synonymns. 131 

Gejteral Directions. 

1. Make a plan or outline of the essay before writing any part of it. 
S, Note down in writing any useful tJiought that may occur to you 
while you are collecting material for your composition. 

Exercise in" Synonyms. 

1. Custom— habit. — (7w«tom respects the action ; ^rtZ>^Y the actor. 

By custom we mean the frequent repetition of the same- 
act; by habit the effect which that repetition produces on- 
the mind order body. 

2. Pride — vanity. — Pride makes us esteem ourselves; vanity 

makes us desire the esteem of others. 

3. Enough — sufficient. — Enough relates to the quantity which' 

one wishes to have of anything; sufficient, is all that is 
needed. 

4. Remark — observe. — We remark in the way of attention, ins 

order to remember; we observe in the way of examination^ 
in order to judge. 

5. Qualified — comj)etent. — Qualified, having the training, skill, 

knowledge; competent, having the power. 

6. Entire — complete— perfect. — Entire, having all its parts; com- 

plete, all its appendages; perfect, all essentials, without flaw. 

7. Fortitude — courage.— Fortitude, power to endure pain; coiir- 

a^e, power to face danger. 

8. Vocation — avocation. — Vocation is the calling or prof ession ; 

avocation, the temporary employment. 

9. Excuse — pardon— forgive, — We excuse slight offences; we 

pardon manifest faults; ive forgive sin. 

10. Grand — sublime — Lovely — pretty — beautiful. (We omit 
definitions. Point out the distinctions.) 

11. Amuse — diiiert — entertain. — Amuse, to pass time lightly and 
pleasantly away; divert, to turn one's thoughts to some- 
thing of a livelier interest; entertain, to put the mind into 
agreeable contact with others, as through conversation, or 
a book. 

13. Arduous — hard — difficult. — Difficult, anything that requires- 
more or less exertion to perform it; hard, that which re- 



132 LANGUAGE. 

quires a decidedly greater effort to perform it; arduous^ 
that which requires strenuous and preserving effort to per- 
form it. 
13. Gospel. — Derived from the Saxon adjective God, meaning 
f/ood, and spell, a narrative — the good narrative, or glad tid- 
ings. 
This can be made a very pleasant and instructive ex- 
ercise; the teacher should explain and illustrate the 
synonyms, and require the pupils to form sentences, 
using the words correctly. It will teach precision in 
the use of words; great care should be taken to distin- 
guish between the general meanings and particular 
applications. 

Instruct the pupils to use simple, plain terms; com- 
pare the quotations below and study the difference in 
the purpose and form of expression. 

" Life is real, life is earnest; and the grave is not its goal. 
Dust thou art, to dust returnest, was not spoken of the soul." 

Lo?igfellow. 

" Life is the definite combination of definite composite hetero- 
geneous changes, both simultaneous and successive, in correspond- 
ence with external co-existence and sequences." — Herbert Sjyencer. 

OoMMOiq^ Mistakes. 

1. ^^We have no corporeal punishment here," said a 
teacher. Corporeal means having a body and is opposed 
to spiritual. Say, corporal punishment. 

2. .'' Set down and rest yourself;'' say, sit down. 

3. '^ Who do you mean ? " say tvJiom. 

4. '' He has got my slate; " omit got. 

5. ^^ Who done it; " say did it. 

6. " I intended to have written a letter yesterday; " 
say, to write. 

7. *^ The girl speaks distinct ; '' say, distinctly. 



MISTAKES AND VULGARISMS. 133 

8. ^' He lives at New York; " say, m New York. 

9. " He made a great sphirge ; " say, he made a blus- 
tering effort. The first savors of slang. 

10. " My brother lays ill of a fever; '' should be my 
brother lies ill of a fever. 

Vulgarisms. 

The following words and expressions should be strictly 
avoided in conversation and in writing. Only a few of 
the many hundreds in use are given, simply as sug- 
gestions. 

1. " Acknowledge the corn," — instead of to admit. 

2. " Ain't," — instead of am not or isn't. 

3. '-' Awful," — instead of ugly or difficult. 

4. " Beat out," — instead of tired. 

5. " Dreadful," — instead of very. 

6. " Hopping mad," — instead of very angry. 

7. " Strapped," — wanting or out of money. 

8. " Wrathy," — instead of angry. 

"9. '* Female," — correctly used with reference to sex alone. To 
speak of a woman simply as a female is ridiculous. 

The teacher should keep a record of all the mistakes 
made by the pupils, and encourage them to Record of 
do the same. Once a week these should be "^^^^^^^^s. 
written on the board, and corrected by the pupils, the 
teacher assisting when necessary. 

The pupils should be required to copy in a note-book 
the exercises in a form similar to the above. 

Let the pupils learn the correct way of speaking by a 
correct use of the term. Arbitrary rules are of little 
use in the beginning. 



134 LANGUAGE. 

Fi]s^AL Suggestion's. 
The teacher, at first, will assist the pupils to classify 
Outlines of Subjects, draw outlines, and form correct 
■compositions, tabulations. Questions may be used for a 
brief time, to teach classification ; but should be 
cast aside as soon as possible. The teacher should al- 
ways require pupils to hand in an outline of the sub- 
ject. This plan will cultivate individuality and origi- 
nality and give the pupils a training, intellectually, that 
will prove of great service in after life. 

The teacher must not attempt to do any more than 
Thought the ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ wcll. It would not do, f or in- 
one essential, gtance, to select an object in which the 
properties to be illustrated were not well developed, nor 
an object with which the pupils were not familiar. 

Every lesson should be given in such a way as to 
draw out the perceptive powers of the pupil by leading 
him to reflect on what he sees, or to analyze the object 
before him. Powers are to be strengthened only by 
teaching the pupil to think upon what he sees. 

1. Prepare yourself beforehand on the subject, fixing 
Important ^^^ your mind exactly what subjects you will 
suggestions. \)Ying up, just what definitions and illustra- 
tions you will give or draw out of the class. 

2. Have the work marked or written down in the 
form of a synojisis. 

3. Use the board in all exercises; write on it techni- 

•cal words, classification of the knowledge brought out 
in the recitation, and whenever possible, illustrative 

drawings. 



FIN"AL SUGGESTIONS. 135 

4. Whenever the subject is of such a nature as to 
^llow it, the teacher should bring in real objects illus- 
trative of it and encourage the children to do the same. 

5. Do not burden the pupil with too many new tech- 
cal phrases at a time, nor fall into the opposite error 
of using only the loose common vocabulary of ordinary 
life, which lacks scientific precision. 

6. Discuss the topics tliorouglily. 

7. Do not overburden the pupiFs memory. 

8. Do not distract his power of attention. 

9. Never take up a topic that you are unable to ex- 
plain and illustrate so clearly as to make the pupil un- 
derstand it. 

10. Avoid all phases of the subject that will tend to 
confuse rather than enlighten. 

11. Draw out in a conversational way the experience 
and information which your scholars already possess on 
the subject. 

12. Never omit to show by a synopsis on the board 
what has been discussed in the lesson, its classification 
and relation. 

13. Eequire short weekly compositions of the pupils, 
expressing in their own language their ideas on the 
subject. 

By spending ten or fifteen minutes each day, in a 
familiar, conversational lecture, upon some T^pi^g for 
topic or object, selected from the following ^^lef talks, 
list, not only will the scholars be interested and learn 
many new truths in a way to remember them, but the 
teacher himself will derive great advantage from his 
preparation for such an exercise. Whenever it can be 



186 



LANGUAGE. 



done, the means of illustration should be at hand, to 
demonstrate to the eye, and thus fasten upon the mind 
the facts and reasoning of the lecturer. The curiosity 
of the pupils should be excited, and questions and re- 
marks should be encouraged, for by these means they 
will be led to closer habits of thought and observation. 



1. 


Glass. 


23. 


Vinegar. 


45. 


Feathers. 


2. 


India-rubber. 


24. 


Butter. 


46. 


Coral. 


3. 


Leather. 


25. 


Cheese. 


47. 


Gutta-percha. 


4. 


Sponge. 


26. 


Coffee. 


48. 


A piece of fur. 


5. 


Wool. 


27. 


Tea. 


49. 


Rotundity of the 


6. 


Wax. 


28. 


Rice. 




earth. 


7. 


Whalebone. 


29. 


Paper. 


50. 


Spheroidal form 


8. 


Bread. 


30. 


Cotton. 




of the earth. 


9. 


Ivory. 


31. 


Flax. 


51. 


Origin and use of 


10. 


Chalk. 


32. 


Silk. 




salt in the sea. 


11. 


A pin. 


33. 


Gold. 


52. 


Commerce. 


12. 


A pencil. 


34. 


Silver. 


53. 


The seasons. 


13. 


A brick. 


35. 


Mercury. 


54. 


Phases of the 


14. 


An acorn. 


36. 


Lead. 




moon. 


15. 


A cork. 


37. 


Copper. 


55. 


Tides. 


16. 


A stone. 


38. 


Iron. 


56. 


Eclipses, 


17. 


Cinnamon. 


39. 


Tin. 


57. 


Electricity. 


18. 


Nutmeg. 


40. 


Lime. 


58. 


Mariner's com- 


19. 


Ginger. 


41. 


Coal. 




pass. 


20. 


Gloves. 


42. 


Granite. 


59. 


Circulation of the 


21. 


Water. 


43. 


Salt. 




blood. 


22. 


Oil. 


44. 


Slate. 







Questions for Debate. 
Is the farmer the most useful member of society? 
Does wealth tend to exalt the human character? 
Has civilization increased human happiness? 
Are great men the greatest benefactors of the world? 
Is intemperance a greater evil than war? 



MISCELLANEOUS TOPICS. 



137 



Do inventions improve the condition of the laboring 
classes ? 

Is the expectation of reward a greater incentive to ex- 
ertion than the fear of punishment? 

Do savage nations possess the right to the soil? 

Is the mind of woman inferior to that of man? 

Is the pen mightier than the sword? 

Has increased wealth a favorable influence on the 
morals of the 23eople? 

Did the Crusaders benefit Euro]3e? 

Was the invention of gunpowder an evil? 

Is the existence of political parties an evil? 

Is the pulpit a better field for eloquence than the bar? 

Subjects for Compositions. 



Spring. 
Flowers. 

A Thunder-storm. 
What becomes of the Rain. 
Blessings of Hope. 
Flowers of Memory. 
The Prairies. 
Unity in Diversity. 
Snow. 
Mountains. 
Forests. 

The Beauties of Nature. 
Our Country, 
The Study of History. 
Peace. 
War. 

The Ruins of Time. 
The Fickleness of Fortune. 
A Dream. 
A Ray of Light. 
J 



A Drop of Water. 

Immutability of Change. 

Town and Country. 

Never Give Up. 

Benevolence. 

History of a Looking Glass, 

Power of Mind. 

The Bible. 

The Sunny Side. 

The Aurora Borealis. 

The Earth. 

The Shady Side. 

Human Genius, 

Aim High. 

Past and Present. 

Book of Nature. 

Hope On, Hope Ever. 

Nature's Mysteries. 

The Contrast. 

The Starry Heavens. 



138 



LANGUAGE. 



By-gone Hours. 
Immortality of the Soul. 
Influence of the Great and 

Good. 
Poetry of Nature. 
Music of Nature. 
Memory of our Fathers. 
Matter and Mind. 
The Stuff that Dreams are 

made of. 
The Seasons. 
Heat. 
Light. 

The Spirit of Discovery. 
The Art of Printing. 
Newspapers. 
Novelty. 
The Sun. 
The Rainbow. 
The Moon. 
The Stars. 

The Study of Geography. 
The Pleasures of Travelling. 
The Application of Steam. 
Rivers. 
To-morrow. 
The Ocean. 
Manufactures. 
The Influence of Women. 
Hero-worship. 
Magic of Kindness. 
Cost of Civility, 
Things that Cost Nothing. 
The Orphan. 
The Rolling Stone. 
Teachers. 
Loved Faces. 



We Bloom To-Day, To-mor- 
row Die! 

The Wreath of Fame. 

Reflections of a Looking-glass. 

Early Companionship. 

Music of the Sea-shell. 

Letter from the Town. 

Letter from the Country. 

Tricks of Trade. 

Keepsakes. 

My Room-mate. 

The True Friend. 

What Shall we Read? 

School Associations. 

Paddle Your Own Canoe. 

Star of Home. 

One by One. 

I've Wandered in Dreams. 

Philosophy of a Tear. 

Music of the Spheres. 

Oppression the Nursery of Tie- 
form. 

The Book. 

Peaceful Conquests. 

The True Hero. 

Sources of a Nation's Wealth. 

Commerce. 

Early Rising. 

Cheerfulness. 

The Uses of Biography. 

The Backwoodsman. 

Punctuality. 

Curiosity, 

Foppery. 

Gardening. 

Modern Delusions. 

Young America. 



MISCELLAJS'EOUS TOPICS. 139 

The Multiplication of Books. The First Stroke is Half the Bat- 

The Philosopher's Stone. tie. 

Nature and Art, Make Hay while the Sun Shines. 

The Freedom of the Press. Necessity is the Mother of In- 

The Present. vention. 

The Past. A Picture of Fancy. 

The Future. Leaflets of Memory. 

Silent Influence. A Soft Answer Turneth away 

The Monuments of Antiquity. Wrath. 

Rome was not Built in a Day. Avoid Extremes. 

Reference Books. 

Verbal Pitfalls. A manual of 1,500 words commonly 
misused, including all those the use of which in any sense has 
been questioned by Dean Alvord. G. W. Moon, Fitzedward Hall, 
Archbishop Trench. Wm. C. Hodgson, W. L. Blackley, G. F. 
Graham, Richard Grant White, M. Scheie de Vere, Wm. Mat^ 
thews, "Alfred Ayres," and many others. Arranged alphabet- 
ically, with 3,000 references and quotations, and the rulings of 
the dictionaries. By C. W. Bardeen. 16mo, pp. 223. 75 cts. 

Outlines of Sentence Making. A brief course in compo- 
sition. By C. W. Bardeen. 12mo, pp. 187. 60 cts. 

A System of Rhetoric. By C. W. Bardeen. 12mo, pp. 813. 
$1.75. 

A Shorter Course in Rhetoric By C. W. Bardeen. 12mo, 
pp. 311. $1.00. 



GRAMMAR. 



Grammar deals largely with abstract relations, and 
A mature ^^^' ^^^^ reason some maturity in the pupil is 
study. indispensable. A great deal of time is wasted 

upon this subject; if presented wisely and at the proper 
time it will prove delightful and interesting. 

A common fault in teaching grammar is to require 
pupils to commit to memory definitions and rules that 
have for him no meaning. Grammar should at first he 
taught orally; all the terms should be developed, ex- 
plained and illustrated by copious examples. When 
these terms are fully understood, then and not until then, 
should the pupils be required to commit the rules to 
memory. As fast as the terms are learned, the pupils 
should be required, in all cases, to embody them in sen- 
tences of their own construction. 

General Plan of Study. 
I. Develop the Sentence. 

II. Develop the parts of a J * ^ 



Sentence. 



III. Develop the kinds of 
Sentences (as to use.) 



2. Predicate. 

1. Declarative. 

2. Interrogative 

3. Imperative. 



^ 4. Exclamatory. 
(140) 



GEN^ERAL PLAN OF STUDY. 141 

^1. Simple. 
IV. Develop the forms of 

Sentences (as to propo- -{ 2. Complex, 
sitions.) I 

[3. Compound. 

V. Teach the correct use of Capital Letters. 

VI. Teach the correct use of Punctuation Marhs. 

The Sentence. 
Ask the pupils to think of some object. Ask them 
how you may know the name of the obiect. ^ 

-J 'J '' Suggestive. 

They perceive that before their thoughts can 
be known to others they must express them. In order 
to communicate your thoughts^, what must you use? 
They will discover that to express a thought, they must 
use words. Xow ask each pupil to express a thought, 
as ^^'The bird sings;" '^The tree grows;" ''The boy 
laughs; "'' The clock ticks;" etc. They are now told 
that a thought expressed in words is called a sentence. 

Eequire the pupils to form several sentences orally, 
using the following analysis. 

I first thiiih about something ; I use ivords to express 
my thought. The words used are: "The Mrd sings." 
These words express a thought, and form a sentence. A 
thought expressed in words is called a Se?itence. 

The pupils have already discovered that there must 
be an object or subject of thought in the 
mind. And when they tell their thoughts 
they speak of some object or subject and tell something 
about it. They are led to see this in every sentence. 
By repeated trials they soon find that they can form no 
sentence without speaking of something and telling 
something about it. 



142 GRAMMAR. 

Ask the pupils to express a sentence and analyze it» 
'* The clock ticks/^ 

'' Tlie clock ticks /^ is a tliouglit expressed in words; it 
is a sente7ice. The ivord " clock '^ represents the olject 
spoken of; it is the subject. The ivord " ticks " repre- 
sents what is said of the clock; it is the predicate. 

That of which something is said, is called the subject. 

That which is said of the subject is called the predi- 
cate. 

By a similar process of development the pupils are 
The object, led to obscrve the object of a sentence. 

The teacher should write at the board all the sen- 
tences given. 

It would be well for the teacher to ask questions of 
Kinds of sen- ^^^^ pupils and endeavor to get in reply the 
tences. different kinds of sentences, as asking, tell- 

ing, etc. The teacher should write these sentences as 
given by the pupils on the board, and let the pupils dis- 
cover the differences. Let them see that every telling 
or declarative sentence, ends with a period. Every ask- 
ing or interrogative sentence ends with the mark of 
interrogation, every exclaiming sentence with an excla- 
matio?i p>oint, and every commanding or imperative 
sentence with a period. 

Review. — To be committed to memory. 

1. A thought expressed in tvords is a Sentence. 

2. That of which something is said, is called the Sub- 
ject. 

3. That which tells luhat is said of the subject, is 
called the Predicate. 

4. That which receives the act expressed by the predi- 
cate, is called the Object. 



KINDS OF SENTENCES. 143 

Every sentence should begin with a Capital Letter. 
Every sentence should end with a Punctuation Marh. 

The Telling, or Declarative Sentence. 

Teacher. Make a sentence about this cap. 

Pupil. The cap is red. 

(The teacher writes on the board, while the pupils 
spell the words.) ' 

T. What did you do when you made this sentence? 

P. We told you something said about the cap. 

T. Because this sentence tells or says something, 
what kind of a sentence may we call it? 

P. We may call it a telling sentence. 

T. What then is a telling sentence? 

P. A sentence that tells, or declares something. 

T. What mark must be placed after the last word of 
every telling sentence? 

P. A period. 

T. What have we learned in our lesson of to-day? 

P. A sentence that tells something is called a Telling, 
or Declarative Sentence. We must place a Period after 
the last word of every telling, or declarative sentence. 

Eequire the pupils to write on their slates the defini- 
Fix facts by ^i^^ ^f a sentence, subject, predicate, object, 
wntmg them. ^ telling sentence and the rule for punctua- 
tion. Let the pupils spell the words, and examine the 
slates carefully. 

The Asking, or Interrogative Sentence. 

T. I will ask you a question, and will write it on the 
board. '^ Do you love study? ^^ What did I do? 
P. You asked a question. 



144 GRAMMAR. 

T. Because it asks a question, what kind of a sentence 
is it? 

P. An asking sentence. 

T. What is an asking sentence? 

P. A sentence that asks a question is an asking sen- 
tence. 

Let the pupils repeat, spell words and write the defi- 
nition on their slates; ask them to examine their reading 
books, and bring in asking sentences. 

Drill upon the above until every member knows how 
to use the period and the interrogation mark. 

TJie Commanding, or Imperative Sentence. 

T. Tell me to do something. Can I use another word 
instead of tell f 

P.- You can use command, 

T. Give me a command. 

P. '^Hand me a cup." 

T. What does this sentence do? 

P. It makes a command. 

T. What kind of a sentence may we call it? 

P. A commanding sentence. 

T. What is a command in 2^ sentence? 

P. A sentence that expresses a command is a com- 
manding sentence. 

T. What mark have I placed after the last word of 
the commanding sentence? 

P. A period. 

T. How do I begin a commanding sentence? 

P, With a capital letter. 

T. How do I close it? 

P. With a period. 



KINDS OF SENTENCES. 145 

T. What is a sentence? 

What is a telling sentence? 

What is an asking sentence? 

What is a commanding sentence? 

How do I close every asking sentence? 

How do I close every telling sentence? 

Write five telling, five asking, and five command- 
ing sentences. 

Write the definition of the telling, asking and 
commanding sentences. 

The Exclaming, or Exclamatory Sentence. 

T. If you should see a house on fire, what would you 
say? 

P. '' 0, see the fire! ^^ "A house on fire! " 

T. What would you call these expressions? 

F. Exclamations. 

T. What do these sentences do? 

F. They make exclamations. 

T. What kind of sentences are they? 

F. Exclaiming sentences. 

T. What is an exclaiming sentence? 

F. A sentence that makes an exclamation, is an ex- 
claiming sentence. 

T. What mark do you find after the last word? 

P. An exclamation point. 

T. You may all write an exclaiming sentence. 

Eequire the pupils to repeat all the definitions, — see 
that they understand the idea before com- 
mitting them to memory. Let them construct drill in com- 
and write many sentences, holding them 
rigidly to the correct use of capital letters and punctua- 



146 GRAMMAR. 

tion marks, and require neatness in every exercise. 
Work on each sentence until it is right. If necessary 
to success, be willing to work three days on one short 
lesson. '* Not how much, hut how well" should he the 
motto. 

Revieiu, to he committed to Memory. 

1. A thought expressed i7i ivords is a Sentence. 

2. A sentence that tells or declares something is a 
Telling or Declaring Sentence. 

3. After the last word of every Telling or Declaring 
Senteyice we must place a Period. 

4. A sentence that asks a question is an Asking or 
Interrogative Sentence. 

5. After the last word of every Asking or Interroga- 
tive Sentence ive must place an Interrogation Mark. 

6. A sentence that expresses a command is called a 
Commanding or an Imperative Sentence. 

7. After the last ivord of every Ooymnanding or Im- 
perative Sentence, loe must place a Period. 

8. A sentence that snakes an exclamation is an Ex- 
claiming or Exclamatory Sentence. 

9. After the last word of every Exclaiming or Ex- 
clamatory Sentence, zve must use the Exclamation Point. 

Note. — Simple as this may seem, it requires on the 
part ol* the teacher a great deal of patience to teach it 
thoroughly. This is a very important subject, and the 
pupils should be able to make practical application of 
the above points. '' Make haste slowly." 

The attention of the pupils should be called to the 
Useofcapi- Capital letters at the beginning of all these 
taiietters. different sentences. This is very important, 
and one of the most practical rules in grammar. Re- 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 147 

quire written exercises to be brought into the class, 
subject to the criticism of the class and teacher. 

After the pupils have been made thoroughly familiar 
with the sentence, subiect, predicate, and 
object, with the kinds of sentences, capital 
letters and punctuation marks, they should be required 
to form sentences and analyze them, and write the 
definition of all the terms that have been taught. A 
perfect understanding of the thought to be expressed is 
essential to correct analysis; hence, the first step should 
be to prepare the pupils to analyze sentences they them- 
selves have constructed. When they shall become quite 
expert at this, they ma}'' analyze the thoughts of others. 

Let it be the aim of the teacher to present the subject 
so pleasantly and attractively that pupils will not say, 
as is often the case, '^ What a dry, distasteful, uninter- 
esting subject. ^^ 

Sentences Classified According to their Projmsitions. 

T. Jennie what have you in your hand? 

P. I have a book. (Teacher writes the answer on 
the board.) 

T. What is the subject? 

P. The subject is ''I." 

T. What is the predicate? 

P. " Have a book.'' 

T. Whe7i the subject and predicate express a complete 
thought it is called a Single Proposition. 

You may repeat what I have just said. 

P. Suppose it does not express a complete thought? 

T. It may, or it may not, express a complete thought, 
and still be a proposition; for a proposition is the union 



148 GRAMMAR. 

of a subject and a predicate. In the example, ^^I have 
a book," the thought is complete. In the example, ^^ If I 
go/' it is incomplete; both are propositions. 
Fred, do you like the boys in school? 
P. I like the boys who study. 
T. Eead the first proposition. 
P. ^a like the boys.'' 

T. That is right: why is that a proposition? 
P. Because it is the union of a subject and a predi- 
cate. 

T. What kind of a proposition is it? 
P. A single proposition, because it expresses complete 
sense. 

T, Do the words ^^who study "make sense? 
P. They do not, if used alone, but with the other 
proposition they assist to complete the sense. 

T, That is right. Are the words '' who study " a 
proposition? 

P. They are; because they form the union of a sub- 
ject and predicate. A proposition by itself may or may 
not form a sentence. 

T. What is such a proposition as '^ who study," called? 
Do you know? 

P. It is called the second proposition. 
T. You might call it that, but it would not be defi- 
nite: we will call it a clause, as it performs different 
offices. 

In the sentence ^' I like the boys who study," which 
do you think is the principal proposition? 
P. '' I like the boys." 
T, Why do you think that is the principal? 



ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 149 

P. Because it is that which expresses the leading 
thought. 

T. That is right. Let us all repeat that. 

That ivliich expresses the leading thoiight is the Lead- 
ing Proposition. 

P. And what of the words " who study " ? 

T. Do they make complete sense? 

P. They do not; they seem to have something to do 
with the principal proposition. 

T. That is right, John. They tell the kind of boys. 
We may call them the '^ study boys." It is not the 
principal proposition. What shall we call it? In a 
regiment we have principal officers and — (Fred answers) 
^' subordinate." That is right, Fred. As the words 
*' who study " modify the principal proposition we will 
call them a subordinate clause. Now, what is a subor- 
dinate clause? 

P. The clause that modifies the j^rincipal proposition 
is a Subordinate Clause. 

T. You may all repeat it slowly; so you see that sub- 
ordinate parts or elements are those that belong to 
other elements. They are called subordinate because 
they are under in order, or importance. 

Now, let us find another kind of proposition. I see 
two boys in the park. Tell their names. 

P. Charles and Frank. 

T, What are they doing? 

P. Charles runs and Frank walks. 

(Teacher writes answer at the board.) 

T. Read the first proposition. 

P. Charles runs. 

T, Read the second proposition. 



150 GRAMMAR. 

P. Frank walks. 

T. Does the last proposition belong to any word in 
the first? 

P. It does not. 

T. Does the first proposition belong to any word in 
the second? 

P. It does not. 

T. Does the first proposition express a complete 
thought in itself? 

P, It does. 

T. Does the second proposition express a complete 
thought in itself? 

P. It does. 

T. Since each proposition expresses a thought by 
itself, meaning that it is not dependent, what shall we 
call it? I will tell you. We call the propositions Co- 
ordinate. It means that the propositions are of equal 
rank. We will now repeat: 

Propositions of equal rank or order are called Co- 
ordinate. 

T. A sentence composed of one proposition is called a 
Simptle Sentence; a se7itence composed of a principal and 
suhordinate propositions, is called a Complex Sentence; 
a sentence composed of two or ?nore co-ordinate proposi- 
tions is called a Compound Sentence. 

The teacher should not leave this division until the 
pupils can bring into the recitation written examples of 
all the different sentences. He should also require the 
pupils to analyze the sentences. 

Review. 
1. A proposition is the union of a subject and a2>red- 
cate. 



CLASSIFICATIOJf OF SENTENCES. 



151 



2. A proposition by itself may or may not form a se7i- 
tence. 

3. A single proposition is a sentence ivlien it expresses 
a complete tliouglit. 

4. A pr opposition may form an element of a sentence; 
it is then called a clause. 

5. The principal proposition of a sentence is that 
which exp)resses the leading tliought, 

6. A subordinate proposition is one that modifies the 
principal. 

7. Co-ordinate propositions are those of equal rank in 
the same sentence. 

8. A simple sentence is one composed of but one propo- 
sition. 

9. A complex sentence is one composed of a principal 
and one or more subordinate propositions. 

10. A compound sentence is one composed of tivo or 
more co-ordinate propositions. 

Classification of Sentences and their Elements. 

Sentences, "] f Simple, 

Clauses, 

Phrases, 

Subjects, 

Predicates, 

Objects, 

Attributes, 

Modifiers, 



are classified in respect to form! 
' and use, as ^ 



Compound, 



Sentences, 

Clauses, 
Phrases, 



Complex. 

^ are classified in ( Declarative, ( Affirmative, 

' respect to kind J Interrogative, J 

or proposition, ] Imperative, 1 ^^ 
as t^Excl amative, [Negative. 

{ are classified in respect to kind ( |XX'ate, 
) and proposition. ^ Co-ordinate. 

) ( Prepositional, 

> are classified in respect to kind, \ Infinitive, 
} ( Participial. 



152 



GRAMMAE. 



Sentences, 
Clauses, 
Phrases, 
Elements, 

of 
Sentences. 

Elements 

of 
Phrases. 



are classified 

Principal, 
Subordinate. 

I 



( Substantive, 
in respect to office, ^ ^1]^^^^^ 

[ Independent, 

j Subject, i Verb, 

{ Predicate, ■] Copula and 

j Objeevt, ( attribute. 
\ Modifiers, 



are classified into 



[ T>..;„«;.^«i f Connective, 
j Prmcipal, j g^^bsequent. 



( Adjunct, 



Words, 
Modifiers. 



Connecting Elements are 
classified into 



Independent Elements are 
classed into 



[ conjunctions. ] g»-<iin=.te, 

I Conjunctive Adverbs, 
■{ Copulas, 

Phrases, 

Relative Pronouns. 

Prepositions. 

{Interjections, 
Substantives, 
Words of Euphony. 



LETTER- WRITIN G . 



Good letter-writing is one of the foundation-stones of 
business, and one of the strongest connecting j^ import- 
links of common life. It were to be wished ^'^^^• 
that more attention were paid to the subject of letter- 
writing in our schools. In the present day, when igno- 
rance is deservedly at a discount, and when so much is 
expected of every one, even in a humble position in 
life, there is no reason why letters should furnish so 
many examples of outrageous grammar and absurd 
diction. 

A habit of expressing oneself distinctly and without 
pretension ought to be inculcated in early life. 

When the difficulties of spelling have once been con- 
quered, there will be little difficulty in enabling the 
pupil to acquire such simple forms of letter-writing as 
are necessary to the ordinary correspondence of business. 

'* True ease in writing," as Pope says, ^' comes by art, 
not chance/"'' and every element of a complete educa- 
tion will find exercise in correspondence. Here we can 
offer only a few suggestions that may help one who is at 
loss how to begin, and may prevent anything like posi- 
tive awkwardness or inelegance. 

The chief purpose of this chapter is to guide in the 
manner of the mechanical detail of a letter. Mechanical 
It is to be hoped that this subject will re- ^t^^^^^^^^- 
K (153) 



154 LETTER-WRITING. 

ceive attention, and that pupils may be taught how to 

WRITE A LETTER. 

One can hardly realize that there is a daily average 
of 12,000 or 15,000 dead letters, or about 
400,000 a month. In other words some 
400,000 persons a month undertake to send letters either 
without stamps, without addresses, or with cancelled 
stamps, insufficient postage, illegible or incorrect ad- 
dresses. Many letters are without either stamp or 
address, and often without signature. Strange as it 
may seem, these are sometimes the most valuable letters, 
often containing currency or drafts for large amounts 
of money. It is estimated that some $3,000,000 in 
drafts and 175,000 in cash are sent yearly in letters that 
cannot be delivered. This is all returned, if possible, 
to the persons sending it; but if any portion of it fails 
to find a claimant, it is turned over to the Post Office 
fund. 
Little difficulty is experienced in restoring checks and 
drafts to the rightful owners, but money 

Loss of money. . i • , 

generally comes m small sums, and is sent 
in the most careless, haphazard fashion. The loss of 
these amounts represents a deal of suffering and disap- 
pointment. Some hard working man may send $20, 
the savings of a month's labor, to his wife and little 
ones, whom he has had to leave behind him; but, alas, 
he is one of forty thousand who trust to Providence, 
without stamp or address, or else his writing or orthog- 
raphy are beyond mortal ken, and so the poor wife never 
gets the pittance which is her all. 

During November, 1876, more than 400,000 letters, 
newspapers and postal cards, were received for delivery 



FIRST SUGGESTIONS. 155 

by the letter carriers of New York city, of which 20,000 
were returned by them as inideliverable on account of 
incorrect and illegible suj^erscriptions. Four millions 
and a half accumulate annually in the United States. 

Surely every teacher should give instruction in Letter- 
Writing. 

It has been taken for granted, that pupils who could 
parse and analyze a simple sentence, bound the States 
and Territories, and explain an example in cube root, 
could write a passable letter; but this is a mistahe. A 
majority of our pupils are only able to do what has been 
taught to them, and that thoroughly. It is not enough 
to say to pupils ^'You should be able to write a good 
letter; '' you should make sure by your own instruction 
that they can write a good letter. 

I. MECHANICAL STRUCTURE OF THE LETTER. 
First Attempts. 
*^How shall I teach the pupil to write a letter?" Try 
the following method: — Ask him, — 

1. What are you going to write about? Get the real 
fact or incident, and have him write it down 

„ ', . 7 ■ , Subject. 

m proper lorm, as his subject. 

2. What is ih.ei first thing you wisli to tell about? Tell 
him to write that down by itself, as he wishes 

to tell it. Proceed thus, with the several 
items, 2d, 3d, and so on, till he thinks of notliing more. 
So far you have the material. Now for the order. 
Ask him, — 

3. Which of these really ought to come first? If he 
hits on the risrht one, have him number it 1. 

. '- .' Arrangement. 

If he IS wrong, j^omt out the right one. 

Proceed in the same way to find the proper second item. 



156 LETTER-WHITING. 

iind so on to the end. This settles the order. Now 
consider the paragraphs. Ask, — 

4. Which of tliese seem to belong together in a group? 

Have them numbered a second time, as 1[ 1, 

Paragraphs. 

2, etc. Show the proper method for spacing 
the first lines of paragraphs. Attend next to the ex- 
pression. Ask, — 

5. What long words can be changed for short simple 

words, or those in better taste? Have the 

Expression. 

changes made by interlining. Next, con- 
sider the capitals and punctuation. Ask, — 

6. What ungrammatical words or expressions do you 

find? Whatever such he finds, correct by 

Corrections. ... ' j 

interlining. Such as he fails to find, point 
out and have corrected. 

7. What words should begin with capitals? Have 
Capitals. these marked. 

8. Where do we want a full separation? Have the 

period inserted. And so proceed, if other 

Punctuation. . , ^ , 

points are needed. 

Now require a complete draught to be made. When 
this is done, examine and correct it under the pupiFs 
close observation, explaining the corrections made. 
Lastly, require a carefully written copy according to the 
corrections. 

The materials for letter-writing should be of good 

quality. Good materials cost only a trifle 
Materials x ./ »/ ^ 

more than poor ones. The paper for busi- 
ness correspondence should be white or tinged with blue. 
The size of the paper should be adapted to the size of 
the envelope to be used. 



THE HEADING. 157 

In business correspondence, it is not in good taste to 
use tinted or colored paper. 

Avoid the use of all fancy inks, and use simple black; 
all other colors fade. 

Do not use envelopes of irregular and fancy shape, 
and let them be adapted in size and color, to the paper. 
White is always suitable. 

The Heading. 
The Heading includes the place and date. If your 
letter is to consist of one page only, the prop- 
er position for the Heading is on the first 
line: if of less than one page, proportionately lower; so 
that the space at the bottom of the page may be equal 
to the space at the top. Begin the Heading a little to 
the left of the middle of the page, and if it is too long 
to be placed within the limit of a half line, let it be ex- 
tended for completion to the next line below. It usually 
occupies two lines, but never more than three; when two 
lines are used the second should begin farther to the 
right than the first. Business letters should always be 
dated at the top; some place the date at the bottom; 
but this form is used more generally in social correspond- 
ence. When placed at the bottom it must be near the 
left edge of the paper, one line below the signature. 
(Model 5.) 

The heading of a letter should be self-explaining. 
The name of the State and County should be 
expressed, unless the letter is addressed to a 
very large city, like New York or Boston. If the letter 
is written in a city the street and number should be ex- 
pressed. The Heading should be /w/? and complete, so 



158 LETTER-WRITING. 

that when a person answers the message, he may know 
wliere to send. 

The date includes the month, day of the month, and 

the year; if letters are used after the figures,. 

let them be placed on a line with the figures, 

and not a little above the line. The best usage requires 

cardinal numbers rather than ordinal — Dec. 10, not 

Dec. 10th. 

The parts of the Heading should be separated by com- 
mas, and a period should be placed at the close 
of the Heading and after abbreviations. The- 
ordinal adjectives 1st, 5th, 27th, are not abbreviations,. 
and they should be followed by a comma. The Head- 
ing is an abridged form of sentence, composed of phrases,, 
and phrases are usually set off by commas. 

The teacher should write or have written on the board 
the correct form of the heading of a letter^ 
ugges loiLs. ^.,^|j-^g attention to the position and arrange- 
ment of the parts, capital letters, and punctuation. 
He should require the pupils to copy the correct form on 
their slates, spell the words, and give the correct ar- 
rangement and position of all the parts. 

Various Headings should be given by the teacher un- 
til the pupils are thoroughly familiar with them. A 
few lessons methodically given, will secure mastery. 

Model 1. 
AWanyy New York, 

June 10, 1877, 



Model 2. 
Amsterdam, 

Montgomery Co., N. Y., 

Ju7ie 11, 1880. 



the introduction. 159 

Model 3. 
Vassar College, 

PoKghkeepsie, N, Y., 

March 21, 1880. 



Model 4. 
1109 East Genesee St., Syracuse, N. ¥., 

Tuesday, Dec. 10, 1889. 



Model. 5. 
^2 Clinton Street, 

Troy, N. Y., May 11, 1887. 



The Introduction. 
The name of the person to be addressed should be 
Sfiven on the line below the Heading, at the 

• 1 > -I 1 -IT Tj^ Position. 

right and near the marginal line, it may 
occnp}^ one^ two, or three lines. The first line of the 
address should contain the name and title alone; it 
should begin even v/ith all the lines of the page, except 
the Heading and those that commence paragraphs. 

The American form of correspondence places the 
address before the salutation, except in letters of an 
official character; then it is ^^h^ced at the close of the 
letter, at the left of the signature: this corresponds with 
the English style. 

The direction should be as full in the address as in 
the Heading. The letter should be self-ex- 
plaining; it should contain not only the 
name and residence of the writer, but also the name and 
residence of the person to whom it is written. 



160 LETTER-WRITING. 

The name should be written in full; for example, we 
write to J. C. Knox, Colorado Springs, Col- 
orado; as it stands now it may mean James 
C. Knox or Jennie C. Knox. It is better, unless the 
party is well known, to write the full Christian name, 
and not the initials of the name. Too much pains cannot 
be taken in the address of letters and the superscription 
of envelopes. In New York city there are hundreds of 
persons by the name of John Smith; in order to avoid 
confusion and allay the passion of mail carriers, it would 
be better for all correspondents to write i\\Q full namey 
i\iQ proj^er title and the name and the numier of the 
street. 

The common titles are Mr., Mrs., Miss, and Esq. Mr. 
is an abbreviation of Mister; Mrs. is an ab- 

Title 

breviation of Mistress, but pronounced 
Missis, which is written J/rs.; Miss is not considered an 
abbreviation, but a contraction from the word Mistress; 
Esq. is an abbreviation of Esquire. 

The following will illustrate the various titles fixed 
Titles. by custom. 

To the King's Most Excellent Majesty. 

To the Queen's Most Excellent Majesty. 

To his Grace the Duke of Argyle. 

To the Most Noble the Marquis of Westminster. 

To the Right Honorable the Earl of Derby. 

His Excellency Benjamin Harrison, President of the 
United States. 

The title of His Excellency is also applied to the 
Governor of any State, or to a Foreign Minister. 

Honorable Levi P. Morton Vice-President of the 
United States. 



THE IKTRODUCTIO]^. 161 

The title of Honorable is also applied to Senators and 
Representatives of the United States, Governors of a 
State, State Senators and Representatives, Judges, 
Mayors, and Heads of Executive Departments of the 
General Government. 

The term Esquire is applied very indiscriminately. 
Properly it is limited to members of the legal profes- 
sion, or to non-professional gentlemen of note and dis- 
tinction. 

Two titles of the same class should not be applied to 
the same name. Thus in addressing John Roe, do not 
say Mr. John Roe, Esq.; though you may say Mr. 
John Roe, or John Roe, Esq. 

If the profession of the person addressed be known, 
the professional title should always be used. If a per- 
son be entitled to two titles, the higher is given; if both 
are used, the low^er first, followed by the higher. 

Titles of respect are usually placed before the name; 
as Mr., Hon., Rev., Dr., and military titles. 

Professional titles sometimes precede, and sometimes 
follow the name. Dr. Fred Childs or Fred Childs, M. D. ; 
Prof. Moses True Browm, or Moses True Brown, A.M. 

All titles should be wu'itten plainly and in full. 

One title should not include another as Dr. Graham 
B. Bristol, M.D. It is allowable 'u\ writing to a clergy- 
man whose surname alone is known to us, to write 
Rev. Mr. Smith, the Mr. being in this case regarded as 
a substitute for the Christian name. A common but 
barbarous error is to write ^' Rev. Smith." 

Two literary, or professional titles may be added to 
one name; thus, Prof. Leroy Cooley, A.M.; Rev. Dr. 
Shaw; Rev. M. B. Anderson, D.D., LL.D. 



162 LETTER- WRITING. 

The wife of a professional man may be addressed, 
using the following title, as Mrs. Dr. Brown, Mrs. Sec- 
retary Bowen. It is no doubt a better custom for the 
wife to be addressed in her own name, as Mrs. Julia 
Ward Howe. It is required in business transactions. 

The salutation should never be omitted; it expresses 
politeness, respect, or affection. The terms 
employed in writing to a man are Sir, Dear 
Sir, My dear Sir. 

The word Dear implies that the 2)arties are acquainted ; 
My dear Sir suggests intimacy or friendship. 

In addressing a married woman, the following form 
is usual, including the title and Christian name of the 
husband: 

Mrs. Dr. J. J. Anderson, 

105 Madison Avenue, 

Albany, N. Y. 

Madam, — 

In the use of salutations, it is better to be too formal 
^^qJjj than too familiar. To use a term of affec- 

famiiiarity. ^\q^ when no endearment exists between the 
parties, is highly improper. It is assuming undue 
familiarity, not warrantable in business correspondence. 

On the other hand, a friendly correspondence once 
But do not established must not relapse into mere 
be capricious, formalities, unless a decided quarrel and 
separation have taken place. Small differences or dis- 
agreements should make no change in your modes of 
address and expression. You may some day have to 
oppose your friend at a caucus meeting, or in a warm 
discussion on religion or politics; yet his aversion to 
your views, and your impetuous opposition to his, are 



THE INTRODUCTION". 163 

not to prevent you writing ^'My dear Harry/' or '^My 
dear Tompkins/' or ^*My dear Sir/' as you did before 
the difference broke out. Depend upon it there is 
nothing more contemptible than to taint the amenities 
of social life with exhibitions of temper or vexation, 
or to suffer the pen to express unfriendly sentiments or 
greetings of a suddenly cool character, because some 
trifling difference has arisen between yourself and your 
friend. 

Here it should be hinted that whatever mode you 
adopt in addressing a person, is to be preserved in 
future correspondence, if not in exactly the same words, 
at least the same in purport; you must not go back ex- 
cept for a special reason, but you may go forward with 
a pro23er grace as intimacy ripens, and increase the 
warmth of your congratulations. 

We remember an incident which may be mentioned 
in illustration of this. A gentleman had been for many 
years on terms of intimate friendship with his tailor, 
and the correspondence between them, whether of a 
friendly or a business nature, had always a cordial tone 
pervading it, until on one occasion the friendship was 
slightly interrupted. In fact, the gentleman was a little 
in arrear as to the settlement of his friend s account, 
and the latter sent a short and brusque letter, as follows: 
"Sir, 

" I am disappointed in not having received the amount of my 
bill as promised by you in your last; may I beg the favor of a 
speedy settlement? Yours obediently, 

Simon Slowstitch." 

To this an answer was returned as follows: 
"My dear Slowstitch, 

"Last time you wrote I owed you nothing, and you addressed 
me as your 'Dear Nonplus'; but since I have unfortunately 



164 - LETTER-WRITING. 

failed to meet your demand, according to my own promise, you 
reduce me to a mere ' Sir,' upon your list of patrons. Do you 
intend to terminate a friendship of ten years in this way, or do 
5'"0U purpose resuming the ' Dear Nonplus,' with a view to be 
mine 'faithfully,' when the account is settled (as it will be to- 
morrow), remaining in the meanwhile mine 'obedientl}',' only? 
Will you allow me to suggest that expressions of friendship are 
open to question, both as to their value and their sincerity, when 
they are made to depend on business relations for their respective 
amounts of warmth or coldness which shall be infused into them. 
To be consistent, I shall have to adopt a cringing tone when I 
owe you money, and a tone of pompous patronage the moment I 
have paid it; that is, if an}'" correspondence should continue be- 
tween yourself and Yours very truly, 

Stephen Nonplus." 

Among the forms of address for friendly, complimen- 
tary and semi-business letters, we have the formal " Dear 
Sir " for use on all occasions. The solicitor so addresses 
his client, the client his solicitor, the patient his physi- 
cian, the editor his contributor, and, indeed, any man 
of gentlemanly pretentions, addressing another to whom 
he has already been introduced, or with whom he has 
already corresponded. In correspondence of a profes- 
sional nature, where both parties are strangers, it would 
always be well to commence with the simple ^^Sir/^ or 
''Madam," and in the second or third letter adopt the 
more agreeable ''Dear Sir," or "Dear Madam." A 
little enhancement of the gentlemanly or ladylike feel- 
ing is to be found in "My dear Sir," or "My dear 
Madam," which may by degrees, as the parties know 
and respect each other more sincerely, take a very 
friendly and now fashionable form of "My dear Mr. 
Swallowwing," "My dear Mrs. Pettitoe," or "My dear 
Miss Nightingale." The latter form is that most in 



THE INTRODUCTION. 165 

use at the present day in polite society, betAveen persons 
who have met at least once, and who are on terms of 
acquaintance, in which business has no part whatever. 

When folks begin to say '^'My dear Higginbottom,^^ 
"My dear old boy,'' and ''My dear fellow,'' all strict 
rules of etiquette are at an end, and good sense gives a 
proper form to the free expression of mutual friendship. 

The salutation used in addressing a woman, either 
married or single, is Madam, Dear Madain, or j^ wnting 
My dear Madam. In writing to a young ^^ women, 
unmarried lady, it is customary to omit the salutation 
and address her with the title prefixed to her surname, 
with the address at the bottom of the letter, at the left. 
(Model 9.) 

J. Willis Westlake says, *' In writing to a lady who 
is a stranger or mere acquaintance, persons 
often feel a delicacy, (unneccessarily so, it 
seems to us,) about saying ' Dear Miss Blank,' or ' Dear 
Madam.' Dear does not mean any more in ' Dear 
Miss,' than it does in 'Dear Sir.' Surely no lady 
would hesitate to use the latter form of address in writ- 
ing to a gentleman of her acquaintance; and the gen- 
tleman would be a fool to suppose she intended to make 
love to him by so doing. When Miss or Dear Miss is 
used in the introduction it must be followed by the 
lady's name; as ' Miss Flora May,' ' Dear Miss Barnes.'" 

We should use the full form in the salutation; as 
Gentlemen, not Gents ; Sir, not Sr.; Dear, not Dr. 

The salutation should begin at the same distance 
from the marginal line as the paragraphs. 
If the address is omitted at the beginning of 
the letter, the salutation should be placed on the first 



166 LETTER-WRITIISTG. 

line below the heading, a little to the right of the mar- 
gin, so that the places of beginning the paragraphs may 
be uniform and correspond to the salutation. (Model 11.) 

Place a period at the end of the address. The ad- 
dress and the salutation are not in the same 

Punctuation. . • i t t , . . , 

grammatical person, the address bemg m the 
third person, and the salutation in the second. 

As to the punctuation mark after the salutation, the 
best authorities use a comma, when the body of the let- 
ter begins one line below the salutation (Models 7, 10), 
and a comma and a dash when the body of the letter 
begins on the same line as the salutation (Model 8). In 
the English form of letter-writing, the salutation, 
simply, is placed at the beginning of the body of the 
letter, and the address at the close of the letter, a little 
at the left. (Models 9, 11, 12.) 

Always preserve an even margin in letters, and in all 
forms of manuscript. The French preserve 
two margins, one at the left, and one at the 
right; this adds to the api)earance of the letter, making 
it correspond with the printed page. The Introduction 
to social and miscellaneous letters is in form the same 
as to business letters. 

All of the above points in the Introduction of a letter, 
should be neatly written on the board. The 
teacher should call attention to each part, 
its exact form and place. 

He should require the pupils to copy the correct form 
on their slates; and upon review, require them to spell 
the words, give correct position and arrangement of all 
the parts, and punctuate the introduction correctly. 



THE INTRODUCTION. 167 

At this point in the instruction review the Heading and 
the Introduction together. 

It is delightful to be able to write a good letter, and 
it is a pleasure to read one. In this like every other 
accomplishment, '^practice makes perfect/'^ and pupils 
should at once set to work with a determination to con- 
quer the difficulties of writing. 

Model 6. 
Prang Educational Co., 

7 Park St., 

Boston, Mass. 
Gentlemen, — Ihave received, etc., 



Model 7. 
Messrs. Bangs <& Co., 

187 Broadivay, 

Neio York, N. Y. 
Dear Sirs, 

Yotir favor, etc. 



Model 8. 
/. Edward Lyon, 

Canisteo, N. Y. 

Respected Friend, — / 
have the honor, etc. 



Miss Griffin, 

yours, etc. 

Miss Ida L. Oriffin, 

Mexico, N. Y. 



Model 9. 

We are in receipt of 



168 letter-writing. 

Model 10. 
Mrs. S. A. Gibson, 

Kalamazoo, Mich. 
Dear Madam, 

Your kind favor, etc. 



Dear Sir, — 

Mr. 8. H. Albro, 

Fredonia, 

N. T. 



Model 11. 

Yours was received, etc. 



Model 12. 
Gentlemen, 

Send me 10 gallons Hornstone Slating, etc. 
Continental P^tV g Co. 

154 Monroe St., 

Chicago, III. 



The Body of the Letter. 

The body of the letter is the message itself, exclusive 
of the Heading, Introduction and Conclusion. 

The body of the letter may begin directly after the 
salutation, and on the same line (Models 

Where begun. ^ ,_,. ... ^',,^ , 

6, 8); or on the next line below, a little to 
the right of the salutation (Models 7, 9-12). The salu- 
tation should never be placed so far to the right of the 
sheet of paper, as to leave room for only one or two 
words after it. 

The paragraph indicates a new subject, and begins on 

a new line, which begins farther to the right 

aragrap ng. ^^^^^ other lines. The first word of the first 



THE CONCLUSION. 169 

paragraph commences after the salutation; the first word 
of tiie second paragraph should fall directly under the 
salutation, and so on with the remaining 

1 1 1 1 • ^^^^ margin. 

paragraphs. All paragraphs should begin 

at the same distance from the marginal line, preserving 

uniformity in the mechanical structure of the letter. 

The Conclusion. 

The conclusion of a letter is the part added to the 
body of the letter. It includes the closing 
compliments and should begin a little to the 
right, but near the middle of the first line below the 
body of the letter, about the same distance from the 
marginal line as the heading. The com2)liments may 
be broken into two lines, but it is not necessary. If 
composed of two lines, the second should begin a little 
to the right of the first, both lines beginning with a 
capital letter. 

Social letters admit of many forms of closing: 

Your friend; Your sincere friend; Yours with esteem; 
Faithfully yours; Yours heartily and affectionately; 
Most gratefully and faithfully yours; Yours very sin- 
cerely; Your loving daughter; Your affectionate father;, 
Ever your affectionate friend. 

Common business forms are Yours truly; Yours re- 
spectfully; Yours very truly; Yours. 

The complimentary closing should be neither too 
familiar, nor too formal. It should have 

» , , 1 1 , , • T Be consistent. 

some reierence to the salutation used, so 
that it may not seem inconsistent. If the salutation 
used be ^' My dear friend," do not close with '^ Your 
friend," — better '^ Truly yours " 



170 LETTER- WRITIls'G. 

In writing the signature, begin a little at the right of 
the complimentary close, on the next line 
below. A letter should always be signed in 
a legible hand, and with accuracy, symmetry, uniform- 
ity and neatness. The full name should be written. 
Thousands of letters are dropj^ed into the post-offices, 
having no name subscribed. It is well to write the 
address under the signature if you wish an answer to 
your letter; particularly if your letter is mailed at some 
other point than your regular residence. 

If the writer is a woman, she should, in writing to a 
Women's stranger, so sign her name as to indicate 
signatures. whether she is married or single. 

Suppose a letter should be written by Miss Morris, for 
example, and signed K. E. Morris, — how is one to know 
whether the letter was written by a man or a woman; 
and the person receiving the letter, — how should he 
address it? He does not know whether to address it to 
Mr., Miss, or Mrs. K. E. Morris. The writer is thus 
placed in a dilemma; he must either address the letter 
without using any title, or risk making a mistake. 

If the writer is single and unknown let her write her 
first name in full; or if she is married, or a widow, 
let her prefix Mrs. Or she may sign her name as she 
chooses, but give her full address at the left and below. 

A comma should be placed after the complimentary 
Punctuation, close, and a period after the signature. 



Model 13. — Social Form. 
1 7'e7nain as ever, 

Yours sincerely, 

Henry R. Sanford. 



the con-clusion. 171 

Model 14. — Business Form. 
I am, gentlemen, 

Yours respectfully, 

Chas. T. Barnes. 



Model 15. — Official Forms. 
I have the honor to he, Sir, 

Your obedient servant, 

Isaac V. Stout. 



I have the honor to he, Sir, 

Your most ohedient servant, 

Samuel H. Alhro. 



lam, Sir, 

Your ohedient servant, 

Henry R. Sanford. 



Very respectfully, 

Your ohedient servant, 

Charles T. Barnes. 



Neatly folding a letter will add very much to its 
appearance. This is a simple thinp; but it 

f ^ , , , , -, ^ ^ Folding. 

should be learned. 

For note paper nearly as wide as the envelope is long, 
fold up the bottom so that it shall be nearly the width 
of the envelope, turn down the top in the same manner, 
and press the folds neatly together. 

For paper of letter size, turn the bottom edge up so 
that it shall be nearly equal to the length of the envel- 
ope; then proceed in the same manner as above. 



172 LETTER-WRITING. 

If the letter is to be enclosed, in iin oflftcial envelope^ 
turn up the lower edge to the width of the envelope, 
and fold the top down over it. 



Model 16. — Social Letter. 

Albany , Jan. 19, 1884-. 
My clear 8iste7', 

Your letter maJces me ])erfectly happy. I have 
so much to tell you, and so much to hear from you, too 
(0, you sly puss, a little hircl has told me all al)Out 
him ! ), that I can hardly wait for Wednesday a7id three 
o'clock. You will see my face first of all at the depot, 
and don't let the train de late. 
Till then, and always. 

Your loving sister, 

Mary B. Davis. 
Miss Eunice Davis, 

Granger Place ScJiool, 

Canandaigua, N. Y. 



Model 17. — Business Letter. 

U9-J^25 So. Clinton St., 
Syracuse, iV. Y., May 28, 1888. 
Sup't M. W. Scott, 

Binghamton, N. Y. 
Sir, — Yours of May 26 is duly received. I am glad 
to receive your order, and tuill ship the goods to you by 
the first of neo:t iveek. Trusting they loill prove satis- 
factory, I am, 

Yours very respectfully, 

Alhertus D. PerTci^is, 



THE SUPERSCRIPTION. 173 

Superscription. 

We have finished the letter and are now ready to 
superscribe it. This Superscription is written on the 
outside of the envelope. It consists of the name and 
title, 2^*^st"^ffic6.' county and State. 

Every element of the Superscription should be on a 
separate line. The first line, consisting of 
the name and title, should begin below and 
at the left of the centre; the second should begin a lit- 
tle further to the right; the third a little further to the 
right than the second, and so on. 

The spaces between the lines and the s]3ace below the 
last should be equal. 

Great pains should be taken in writing the Super- 
scription, and the full form should always be used. 
Each part should be written legibly. It is always the 
safer way to express the name of the county, unless the 
letter is directed to a large city. 

Place a period after abbreviations; when the abbre- 
viation is at the end of a line, place a comma 
„. T ,. ^ • T J ,1 1 Punctuation. 

after each line, ana a period at the close. 

A postage-stamp should immediately be placed upon 
the envelope, lest it be forgotten. It should postage- 
occupy the upper right-hand corner, about sta,mp. 
a sixteenth of an inch from the upper and from the 
right edges. Pains should be taken to put it on neatly. 
It is better to moisten the envelope than the postage- 
stamp, as the latter often becomes too wet if applied to 
the tongue, and falls off the envelope. 



174 LETTER-WRITIKG. 



Model 18. 
Mr. A. C. McLaclilan, 

Siq^t of Schools, 

8eneca Falls, 

New York, 



Seneca Co. 



Model 19. 
Mrs. Anna Randall-Dielil, 
5Jf W. 55th St. 

New York, N Y. 



Model 20. 
Hon. N. A. Calhins, 

12Jf East 88th St. 

Neiu York, N Y. 



Model 21. 
Gardner Fuller, A. M., 

Batavia, 

Neic Yorh, 

Genesee Co. 



Keview. 

1. Develop every part of the letter. 

2. Illustrate and explain each part on the board. 

3. Require pupils to copy the correct form. 

4. Require pupils to reproduce each part. 

5. Carefully examine the pupiFs work. 

6. After all the parts of the structure of a letter have 
been taught thoroughly, and the pupils have been drilled 



GENERAL Ai^ALYSIS. 



175 



sufficiently , require them to reproduce the whole cor- 
rectly. 

7. Teach them how to place the superscription upon 
the envelope, and require them to hand in a letter prop- 
erly written, folded, inserted, and superscribed. 

Keview. 



1. Social. 
3. Business. 



f I. Private.^ 



j a. Domestic. 

{ b. Introductory, etc. 

\ a. Personal. 
) b. Official. 



CloBsificatioii 
of letters. 



3. Miscellaneous 

\ i 

i t4. Postal Cards. 

[ II. Public or Open. 

Structure of Letters. 

i a. Size. 
'1. Paper. • \h. Quality. 
c. Color. 



A. Materials. 



-! 



3. Ink-Color. 



iNo. 
\ St. 



B. Heading. ^ 



C. Introduction. \ II. Parts. 



3. Envelopes. ] «; f^^^^,^ 

^4. Pen. 

I. Position and Arrangement. 

fl. Post Office 

fl Place \ ^- Co^^^y or 
I ^- -^^^^^- ] City. 

11. P'ts. \ ^^- ^^^t^- 

1 (1. Month. 

L3. Date. < 3. Day of tlie Month. 
( 3. Year. 
III. Punctuation. 

I. Position and Arrangement. 

( . ATT (1. Name and 

3 1 . Address. ) rp^^j^ 

( 3. Salutation. ] 2. Direction. 



III. Punctuation. ( 1. Business 



IV. Model. 



\ 3. Social and Miscel- 
( laneous. 



176 LETTER-WRITING. 

f I, Substance. 

I 

D. Body of the Letter. -{ II. The Margin. 

I 

l^ III. Paragraphing. 

f I. Position and Arrangement. 

I i\. Complimentary Close. 

E. Conclusion. ■{ II. Parts. < 2. Signature. 

( 3. Address. 



F. Folding 

G. Superscrip 



III. Punctuation. 



I. Position and Arrangement. 
i 1. Name and Title, 
perscrip- , II. Parts. -^ ( 1. Post Office, 

tion. j ( 2. Direction. J 2. County. 

III. Punctuation. / 3. State. 

LIV. Legibility. 

H. Postage Stamps. ] \ H^l'-^^^^ ^^ 

Specific Hints. 

On the subject of penmanship, M. Ernest Legouve 
Careful ^^^^^ ^^^^ grandaughter: ^^The people who 

penmanship, praise you to your face and laugh at you 
behind your back, say, ^Ah! all clever people write 
badly. ^ Answer by showing as I have shown you a 
hundred times, letters of Guizot, Mignet, and Alexan- 
der Dumas the elder, which are models of caligraphy. 
Write well, my child, write well! Pretty writing in a 
woman is like tasteful dressing, a pleasing physiognomy, 
or a sweet voice. ^^ 

Careless writers who correct their letters often cross 
out and interline until the writing is illegi- 

Interlininff. . . , 

ble. lliis IS inexcusable. 
Copy and re-copy until every part of the letter pleases 
the eye. An hour or two devoted to careful copying 
will lead to habits of accuracy. 



SPECIFIC HINTS. 177 

Tautology is quite common with inexperienced writers; 
when a fact has been stated once. — the point 

, . Tautology. 

made distinctly and clearly^ — repetition only 
weakens and confuses. 

Sidney Smith once remarked: '^'^ After you have writ- 
ten an article, take your pen and strike out half the 
words, and you will be surprised to see how much 
stronger it is.^" 

Never allow a blot to be seen in your letters; it is 
slovenl}^ ■ Blots. 

Avoid flourishing in letter writing; it is indicative of 
dash and display. It 2:oes with an Alaska 

. . . . Flourishes 

diamond pin, alligator boots, hair parted in 
the middle, and a slim cane. 

If it is necessary to write more matter than can be 
properly placed on the pages of a letter, use 
another sheet of paper. There is seldom 
excuse for writing on the margins of the sheet and over 
-the body of the letter. 

In reading, certain words are emphatic, and when 
properly emphasized increase the intensity of 

Underscoring. 

the thought. 

In writing it sometimes adds force to the expression 
to underline certain words; but indiscriminate under- 
lining is as ineffective as it is disagreeable. 

A postscript is something added to a letter after it is 
properly finished, and is generally unneces- 

Postscripts. 

sary. 

When the writer has received new information after 
the letter is finished, it may then be added. It is not 
best to get into the habit of appending postscripts. It 



178 LETTER-AVEITIKG. 

is especially rude to consign to a postscript any word of 
compliment or affection, as an afterthought. 

The character & may be used between the surnames 

of a business firm or between the initial let- 

ters of Christian names; but as a rule it 

should not be employed to take the place of the word 

for which it stands. 

Figures are used for dates, time of day, rates, quanti- 
ties, prices, aggregate amounts, etc. In com- 
mercial paper it is best to use both figures 
and words. 

Business letters are generally preserved, and as lead 
Use ink pencil marks are easily blurred or erased, it 

is not business-like to use the lead pencil 
in correspondence. 

It would be a great favor to editors and printers, 
Letters for should thosc wlio Write for the press observe 
newspapers. ^|^g following rules. They are reasonable, 
and correspondents will regard them as such: 1. Write 
with black ink, on white paper, wide ruled. 2. Make 
the pages small, one-fourth that of a foolsca]^ sheet. 3. 
Leave the second page of each leaf blank. 4. Give to 
the written j)age an ample margin all around. 5. Num- 
ber the pages in the order of their succession. 6. Write 
in a plain, bold hand, without respect to beauty. 7. 
Use no abbreviations which are not to appear in print. 
8. Punctuate the manuscript as it should be printed. 

II. THE STYLE OF THE LETTER. 

Use the simplest terms. Fine words are avoided by 
Simple Ian- educated people. Pompous expression and 
guage. parade of language betoken lack of culture. 

Simplicity should characterize all correspondence. 



LITERARY STYLE. 17^ 

The words we use are an index to the mind and 
heart. Your letter will be accepted as a 
type of your mind and an index of your 
thoughts. Slang phrases are inconsistent with dignity 
of thought, word or deed. And be sure your language 
is chaste. Pure words show a pure heart. 

It is not considered good taste to use foreign words^ 
unless necessity requires them. It is better Foreign 
to use pure English. ^^^^^^• 

If people would plainly say what they think, without 
roundabout phases, and without being haunted at every 
step with the thought of saying fine things, and the 
necessity of moving on stilts in order to show style,. 
they would be more interesting and eifective. 

William Cullen Bryant once made the following sen- 
sible remarks to a young man who had Bryant's 
offered an article for the New York Evening advice. 
Post. 

My young friend, I observe that you have used several French 
expressions in your letter. I think if you will study the English 
language, that you will find it capable of expressing all the ideas- 
that you may have. I have always found it so, and in all that I 
have written I do not recall an instance where I was tempted ta 
use a foreign word, but that, on searching, I have found a better 
one in my own language. 

Be simple, unaffected; be lionest in your speaking and writing. 
Never use a long word when a short one will do as well. 

Call a spade by its name, not a well-known oblong instrument 
of manual labor; let a home be a home, and not a residence; a 
place, not a locality; and so on of the rest. When a short Avord 
will do, you always lose by a long one. You lose in clearness; 
you lose in honest expression of meaning; and in the estimation 
of all men who are capable of judging, you lose in reputation for 
ability. 



180 LETTER- WRITIi^'G. 

The only true way to shine, even in the false world, is to be 
modest and unassuming. Falsehood may be a thick crust, but in 
the course of time truth will find a place to break through. 
Elegance of language may not be in the power of us all, but 
simplicity and straightforwardness are. 

Write much as you would speak, and as j^ou think. If 
with your inferior, speak no coarser than usual; if with your 
superior, speak no finer. Be what you say and within the 
rules of prudence. No one was ever a gainer by singularity of 
words or in pronunciation. The truly wise man will so speak 
that no one will observe how he speaks A man may show great 
knowledge of chemistry by carrying bladders of strange gases to 
breathe; but one will enjoy better health, and find more time for 
business, M^ho lives on common air. 

III. SUBSTANCE OF THE LETTER. 

Letter-writing is very much a matter of habit, and 
for that reason it is important that young 

Any one may i i i j i i x ■ i -x 

write good people should. learn early to consider it a 
pleasant way of communicating thoughts 
and feelings to their friends, instead of a burdensome 
task to be got over as quickly as possible. 

We often hear people excuse themselves b}'' saying 
that they have no " gift for writing letters," as though 
it were something like a talent for music, only accorded 
to a favored few. But the truth is that any one can 
write interesting and pleasant letters who will take a 
little trouble and really persevere in the effort. The 
grand difficulty in the way is that they are too selfish 
and too indolent to try. Nothing that is worth any- 
thing comes without effort, and if you do not care 
enough about gratifying your friends to take a little 
pains for it, you deserve never to receive any letters 
yourselves. 



WHAT TO WRITE. 181 

'' Do not think Avliat to write; write what you think/^' 
is an old rule, and a good one to remember, -vvhatto 
If you are away from home, it is very selfish write. 
not to share your good times with the family by writings 
frequent letters. You can tell what you are enjoying 
so much better while it is fresh in your mind, than yon 
can after your return, when you may not have leisure- 
to go over the whole ground; and these home letters 
may be a means of afterward refreshing your own mem- 
ory, and reminding you of incidents which j^'ou Avould 
otherv/ise have forgotten. There are many other things 
which might be said here, but this will do for the pres- 
ent. A very good rule for letter-writing is the golden 
one, "'^Do as you would be done by.^' 

Write all that you have to say on one subject at once. 
That is, do not begin to tell about your gar- ^^.j^.^ 
den and then about your school; and then ^"^^5^- 
about you garden again; but finish one subject before 
you begin another. Do not be afraid of using the pro- 
noun I. Some people avoid it and thus give their sen- 
tences a shabby and unfinished sound, as ^* Went to 
Boston — called on Mrs. Smith. ^^ Never apologize for 
what you write by saying that you do not like to write let- 
ters. You would not think it quite polite in visiting a 
friend, to say, ^^I do not like to talk to you, so I shall 
not say much.'^ Keep the idea before you that you are 
writing for the sake of giving pleasure to your friend. 

When your letter is merely an inquiry, or on a mat- 
ter of business, the case is different. You then should 
try to be as brief, concise, and clear as possible. An 
elaborately drawn-out business letter is as out of place aa 
it is inconsiderate. 



182 LETTER-WRITING. 

Do not consider anything too trivial to write about 
Write as whicli yoii woulcl think worth mentioning 
you talk. j^ conversation. Writing letters is simply 
talking on paper, and your friends will be much more 
entertained by the narration of little every-day affairs 
than by profound observations upon topics which they 
care nothing about. 

In writing to very intimate friends, who will be in- 
terested in the details of your daily life, it is Avell some- 
times to make your letters a sort of diary — telling some- 
thing of how you have spent each day since you wrote 
last; what books you have been reading, what letters 
you have received from mutual friends, and what you 
have seen or heard that has interested you. 

Many persons, not much accustomed to use the pen. 
Don't defer li^ve a notion that if any occasion happens 
writing. ^q q^h f^y. g^ letter on any business matter, 

they must immediately compose a tedious rigmarole of 
statements and explanations; and, finding it difficult to 
make up what they consider ^'a capital letter,'^ they 
defer writing until the occasion is perhaps gone, or at 
least until the business in hand has suffered considera- 
ble injury by the delay. But if they divest their minds 
of all ideas of literary composition, and just write what 
they would say, in the fewest possible words, and at 
once, such persons would find correspondence agreeable 
rather than irksome. 

You will find it easier to reply to a letter soon after 
Finish your J^^^ g^t it than if you neglect it for a few 
stories. weeks, because you will have the impressions 

which the first reading made upon your mind. Tell 
your friend when you received the letter which you are 



WHEJ^ TO WHITE. 183 

answering, and take np the topics in the order which 
they naturally come, remembering to answer all the 
questions which have been asked. Try to think what 
your friend would like best to hear about, and when 
you undertake to tell anything do not leave it half told, 
but finish the story. People who are not careful about 
this often give a false impression without meaning to 
do so. For instance, one of these careless writers, in 
giving an account of a fire, simply stated that the house 
was burned, without giving any qualifications, thus 
giving the impression that it was entirely consumed, 
and causing a whole family much unneccessary trouble 
and anxiety, as the actual burning in question was very 
slight. 

To this rule there is a single exception. Friendship, 
like all other moral and material adornments ^i^en to 
of life, is subject to blight occasionally, and ^^^^y- 
the strongest union may be dissolved by a fiercer heat 
arising from the combustion of the very dregs and lees 
of amity. Your friend annoys you, disappoints you, 
breaks his word, or lets off a bit of scandal that reaches 
your ears. Then you will '' write him such a letter," 
youll tell him plainly what you think of him, and put 
him to shame by the evidence of black and white. 

Now, if you are wise you will do nothing of the sort; 
you will never write a single word that may cause shame 
or pain in the reader's mind, or that the writer may have 
cause hereafter to regret. A letter is a document that 
may be preserved forever; and should you be mistaken, 
or only partially informed, or the victim of your own 
too hasty or incompetent judgment, your own hand and 
seal may remain as a witness of your rashness, perhaps 



184 LETTER-WEITING. 

of your meanness, to the end of your days, ay, and long- 
after that, to the end of the world even. 

Therefore if you want to tell your friend your mind, 
do not lorite^ but speah it; a spoken bitter- 
ness may be forgotten and forgiven, but a 
written one cannot be so readily forgiven, and can never 
be forgotten; no, not even if burnt; for when we are 
stung in the perusal of something, the effect goes deep, 
and can never be obliterated, even by all-corroding time. 
A fierce letter, a sharply written reproof, a disparaging 
communication to a friend, has been the cause of em- 
bittering many pairs of lives. Never should that be 
written which we may hereafter wish to recall. We are 
all fallible, and may be much in error when we feel sure 
that we are right. That consideration should be suffi- 
cient to make any sensible man or woman pause before 
giving vent to anger, with the pen in hand. 

But exceptions to such a rule may occur; an admoni- 
tion, a reproof, nay, even an accusation, may sometimes 
be necessary, and a letter be the only possible mode of 
conveying it. Let good sense and good feeling deter- 
mine how the case shall be, and let it at the same time 
be borne in mind that what is once written cannot be 
unwritten, and that greater caution is necessary in using 
the pen, than in using the tongue. 

In apologizing for misconduct, for failing to meet an 
engagement, or for lack of punctuality, al- 
ways state the reason. Letters of excuse 
should be written as promptly as possible. 

In asking favors, do not urge the claims too strongly. 
Should a refusal be the result, the humiliation will be 
felt deeply. 



FIKAL SUGGESTIONS. 185 

Letters refusing favors, should be kindly worded, and 
should state the reason. 

In writing a letter, the answer to which is of more 
benefit to yourself than the jDerson to whom 
you write, enclose a stamp for the reply, postage- 
This may seem to be a small matter, but ^ "^^^" 
business firms usually adopt it, and it is only just. 

A letter of introduction, or recommendation should 
never be sealed, as the bearer by whom it is 
sent ought to be presumed to know the con- 
tents. 

As a rule, every letter, unless insulting in its lan- 
guage, requires an answer. To neglect to answer a 
letter is uncivil. 

Business letters must be pithy, short, and go straight 
to the point. Pleasantry is not advisable. It is best 
carefully to distinguish letters of business and of friend- 
ship. 

Every paragraph should be marked by extreme clear- 
ness and 'perspicuity ; so clear and unambiguous that 
the dullest person maybe able to understand it exactly. 

For the sake of perspicuity, careful attention ta 
punctuation is necessary. 

All intercourse between parents and children should 
be free and confidential. 

Read your letter carefully when finished, to see that 
you have made no omissions or mistakes. 

Be very sparing of letters of advice. Even when 
solicited, advice often gives offence, and it should be 
obtruded only when the necessity seems overwhelming. 



M 



ARITHMETIC. 



In order to teach arithmetic successfully the teacher 

should have an idea of the subject as a whole. 

on the found- The most difl&cult part of the subject — as in 

all subjects — is the fundamental part; and 

unless that is thoroughly taught, the after results will 

be unsatisfactory. 

More time is given to the subject of mathematics in 
the schools than to any other study. Important as it is, 
it should not receive an undue proportion of time, — it 
should not be pursued at the expense nor to the neglect 
of other studies of equal importance, as language, read- 
ing, spelling, etc. 

Nothing is gained by passing rapidly through the 
Make haste primary part. Pupils should be perfectly 
slowly. familiar with all the fundamental operations; 

able to write numbers of five and six periods without 
hesitation; to add rapidly and accurately long columns 
of figures; and to perform all computations in the 
fundamental rules with dispatch. 

The first part of arithmetic should be simple, and the 
lesson should be given orally by the teacher, 
fore reason- More attention should be given to the study 
^"^' of processes than to analysis — comp2itati07i 

comes first, elaborate reasoning afterward. During the 
primary course the aim should be to make pupils learn 
how to do it. 

(186) 



BEGIl^ WITH OBJECTS. 187 

Little attention should be given to definitions; if used 
they should be fully understood and ex- 
plained, otherwise they may be committed 
to memory, and this is not necessary during this period. 
The pupils should be able to explain the processes, but 
they should not be required to commit the rules to 
memory, nor the principles. 

Definitions, rules, and principles are deductions, — do 
not burden the children with these. They belong to 
the science of arithmetic. 

Thomas Hill says in his book, " The True Order of 
Studies,'^ that '^Hhe science of arithmetic receives so 
much attention that the art is neglected. ^^ The primary 
object of arithmetic should be, not to develop the reason- 
ing power, but to make pupils skilful in computation. 

He further says, that ^'A child should not be expected 
or required to reason at an early age. Any direct train- 
ing of the logical powers before the age of twelve years is 
premature, and in most cases a positive injury to the 
pupil. The common sense view would give facts before 
reasoning. Reasoning upon facts is the work of a 
maturer mind.''^ Granting this to be true, arithmetic is 
taught backwards in many cases, beginning with reason 
instead of observation. 

I. THE FUNDAMENTAL EULES. 

The teacher should begin the lessons in number with 
objects, using pencils, crayons, pebbles, Begin with 
books; also a numeral frame, objects. 

"■ Initiate children in arithmetic by means of the hall- 
frame alone, thereby making their elementary instruc- 
tion a simple and natural extension of their own daily 



188 



AEITHMETIC. 




observation/' says Laurie, in his standard book ^' On 
Primary Instruction in relation to Education,'^ (p. 112), 
and as he leaves the subject of arithmetic, he adds this 
note, as if in fear he had not been sufficiently emphatic: 

'^ The teaching of arithmetic should be begun earlier 
than is customarv, and aliuays icith tlie 'ball-frame" 
(p. 117). 

The object is to lead the children to the perception of 
the idea of numbers, as exemplified in surrounding 
objects. 

The idea to be gained at first is that of one^ as it is 
the basis of all arithmetical calculations. 

The teacher should hold up one object before the 
class, as one pencil, one crayon, etc., until every child 
understands what is meant by one. 



BEGIN" WITH OBJECTS. 189 

Tell the pupil that one is the word that expresses 
^' the how many/^ the numher. 

After you have taught the word one, then teach the 
character that represents it. 

'^^ Develop the idea, then give the term; educate the 
eye, then employ the hand; cultivate the use of lan- 
guage, then exercise memory. ^^ 

Pupils should not count one, two, three, etc., naming 
the abstract term; they should say one pencil, one 
crayon, one book. 

Proceed in the same manner to teach two, by holding 
up two objects of different kinds. After they are made 
familiar with the number of objects, let marks be made 
on the blackboard; then the characters that represent 
the number of marks. Let children reproduce at their 
seats the work given at the board by the teacher. 

At this point see that the pupils get the idea of the 
Yalue of numbers, by comparing a greater value of 
group of objects. ^^^^"^•^• 

Care should be taken to teach the order of numbers, 
so that the children can tell what number order of 
comes before and what after any given num- ^"™ ^^^" 
ber. This may be illustrated with the class, or the 
picture of a ladder. 

Teach the pupils in the same way to write numbers 
to 99. Give no instruction about units and tens, etc., 
until a later period. 

Teach the subject so thoroughly that your successor 
will not be obliged to instruct in it. 

NUMEKATION AND NOTATION. 

The pupils have been taught thus far to deal with 
ones. They are now supposed to be familiar 

Units. 

with the numbers to 1,000. They may now 



190 ARITHMETIC. 

be taught that there is another name — unit, which 
means a single thing — that may be used with the 
figures, as 1 unit, 2 units, etc. 

At this stage the teacher may provide several small 
sticks, about the size of matches. Take 

Tens 

several sticks and let the pupils count 10; 
proceed in the same manner until 10 bundles have been 
made; now let them see that 1 bundle contains 10 sticks, 
or ten units, or ten; 2 bundles, 20 sticks, or 20 units, or 
20; and so proceed until jou reach 100. 

Write numbers on the board to correspond with the 

objects and groups; let them read the numbers, as 1 ten 

and 1 unit, 1 ten and 2 units; 20, 2 tens; 30, 3 tens, etc. 

When the pupils can readily read columns of units 

and tens, they may be required to write these 

numbers on the slate. The teacher may 

dictate numbers. Let them write numbers below 100, 

and ask them what they used to write the number. For 

example, write 86. How did you write -it? With 8 

tens and 6 units, etc. 

They have been already taught that 10 units make 1 

ten, and 10 tens make 1 hundred. ]^ow 

let them read the numbers. For example 

123; 3 units, 2 tens, 1 hundred, read 123 units. The 

teacher, after sufficient drill, should obtain bundles 

with 100 sticks. 

Supplement these illustrations with dictation exercises, 
and so proceed until the pupils are made familiar with 
and can write numbers readily from dictation on the 
slates and at the board, and read their values. 

The pupils must have a clear idea that units may 
Orders of differ in size and value — that one of any- 
units. thing is a unit, whether large or small. One 



NOTATION AND NUMERATION. 191 

bushel is a unit; one dollar is a unit; one cent is a unit. 
They have already been taught that numbers are built 
up of simple '^ ones/' so far as 100; that each ten is 
considered as a whole^, or 1 ten; that each hundred is 
regarded as a whole, or 1 hundred. 

Now they are prepared to see what is meant by a unit 
of the first order, of the second order, of the third 
order, etc. 

This step is sometimes omitted in teaching number. 
It is a very important one; it should be carefully taught 
and the pupils thoroughly drilled upon it. 

Let them see that it is the position of a figure that 
determines its value. 

Teachers are too ambitious in advancing pupils in 

arithmetic. Some teachers will promote to 

^ Do not pro- 

higher classes pupils that could not pass an mote too 

examination in notation and numeration. 

Frequently we find pupils ciphering in percentage, who 

fail in writing and reading a number of four figures. 

Never let pupils pass beyond the fundamental rules 

until they are familiar with them, and are able readily 

to apply them. 

They will make slow progress in the advanced steps 
if this is not understood, — they will make rapid progress 
if it is thoroughly understood. 

Teach so thoroughly that your successor may not be 
obliged to unteach what has been taught. 

Too much pains cannot be taken with notation, 
numeration, and addition. The law of increase and de- 
crease may be thoroughly developed with these rules. 

Again we repeat, '"^not how much but how well.''' 



192 arithmetic. 

Audition. 
Begin the subject in the same way as the first, with 
objects. Marks upon the blackboard may 
be used after the children have become fa- 
miliar with adding objects. Use the numeral frame 
but see that the children do not confound counting with 
adding. 

Let pupils add concrete numbers without having the 
objects before them. The continued use of 

Use of objects, , . , , , , .. -, . .,. 

objects as counters by children is a positive 
harm, as they look to them for results rather than to 
memory. It is only another form of counting on the 
fingers. 

Do not let the pupils add numbers in the following 
Economy manner: ^'What is the sum of 8 apples, 7 
of words. apples and 4 apples? 8 apples and 7 apples 
are 15 apples; 15 apples and 4 apples are 19 apples.'' 
Rather have thein say; ^^8 apples, 15 apples, 19apples.'" 
Simply announce the results and do not alloAV them to 
count. 

The concrete numbers may soon be dropped altogether 
for they interfere with the one aim the 
teacher should have in view — the insfantane- 
oiis recognition in any two numbers of their sum. 

Many expedients to effect this have been devised. 
A German Thus tjie Germans construct tables like the 

expedient. following: 

2 ^ 3 

8 6 9 7 

2+4 3+4 

2 + G 3 + 6 

4 5 1 

(1) (^) 



ADDITION. 193 

4 5 

2 8 

2 6 9 1 

4+2 5+7 

4+8 6 6+7 4 

8 3 7 



(3) (4) 

2 4 

9 5 
6 8 

2+3 4+5 

3 2 + 7 1 
4 

7 9 

(5) (6) 

In circle No. 1, begin with 2, add 4, and write the 
results about the circle. When the result exceeds nine, 
write the right hand figure only. Beginning with 1, 
passing to the right, we have the following: 2, 6, 10, 14, 
18, 22, 26, 30, 34, 38, 42, etc.; again beginning with 2, 
passing to the left, we have the following: 2, 8, 14, 20, 
26, 32, 38, 44, 50, etc. 

In order to form the circular tables, take any number 
less than ten and add a number to it, and continue the 
successive additions until you repeat the first figure; 
write these numbers about the circle. 

Begin with tlio number 1, and add the number to 10; 
and so on with each number. 

This exercise produces great ambition in the school, 
and pupils like to take part in it. They should first be 
called on to recite in concert; subseqently by individual 
drill. Time them, and see how many seconds they will 



194 ARITHMETIC. 

require to add 100. Only six of the tables are given» 
many others may be made by the teacher. The Ger- 
mans have attained grand results with the circular tables. 

But a more direct and effective method has been de- 
vised by Mr. H. E. Sanford, one of the 
method in ISTcw York State conductors of teachers^ 
institutes. It consists of 45 cards containing 
the 45 possible combinations of two digits, arranged as 
in the accompanying figure, each card having on its 
back the same numbers in reverse order. 

Problems in addition, subtraction and multiplication 
are everywhere written for solution in this one way, 
viz., one number above the other with a line beneath. 
Evidently the method of drill should be the same. He 
thinks there is no advantage in the making of rules by 
children. 

His plan is to follow each development lesson imme- 
diately with 'a drill upon all combinations developed, 
using these cards exclusively. Hold the package of 
cards selected for a lesson in one hand before the class, 
and rapidly move them one at a time to the front; the 
teacher thus sees one side and the pupils the other. 
Concert exercises are not recommended. The best re- 
sults will be obtained by calling puj)ils miscellaneously 
and presenting several cards in rapid succession. Only 
two daily exercises of ten minutes each are necessary.. 
Do not introduce ne2o cards too rapidly. 

At every exercise review all cards previously used as 
long as necessary. Answers must be instantaneous. The 
least hesitation should be considered a failure. Present 
the cards selected for a particular exercise miscellane- 
ously so that no answer can be known from the preced- 



ADDITIOI^^. 



195 



196 ARITHMETIC. 

ing. The position can not indicate the result as when 
numbers are arranged on a chart, or tables are made 
by the children. 

Let the drill be so thorough that when a pair of fig- 
ures is seen, as J, the sum, difference or product as 
required will instantly appear to the mind; e. g., at 
the first glance the pupil reads I as 16, not as 7 and 9 
are 16, as CAT is read as a word, not as 0-A-T. 

Pursue the same plan in subtraction and multiplica- 
tion. When in subtraction the smaller number is 
above, pupils will readily add ten to the minuend and 
give the remainder in the usual manner. 

No other means will be necessary for the complete 
mastery of the multiplication table in a marvelously 
short time. 

After perfectly learning the multiplication table, 
very little drill is needed in the division table. 

AVhen the number 4 has been reached, commence 
column work, but never let the sum be greater than the 
last number developed. The columns will gradually 
become longer and the sums greater, yet no neiD com- 
Mnation of single 'pairs of figures can p)OssiMy occur. 

Finally let the columns be read up and down silently, 
giving only final results. This can be done with re- 
markable rapidity and accuracy, if all single combina- 
tions involved have been thoroughly learned by card 
drill. 

Wonderful results have been obtained with these 
cards in normal and other schools. 

Because pupils thus learn the combinations of num- 
bers, they learn that combining the 4 and 5 will always 
produce a 9; a 6 and a 5 a 1; 9 and 5 a 4; 8 and 5 a 3; 



ADDITION. 197 

7 and 6 a, 2, etc., and by daily systematical drill they 
overcome the hesitancy which is a common fault in 
American schools. No rule in arithmetic is used so 
much as addition, and no pains should be spared to 
teach it well. 

An experience of fifteen years at institutes has re- 
vealed sad results in adding simple columns of figures. 
In many instances the teachers had not been taught to 
add properly in their youth, and we have frequently re- 
ceived twenty-five different answers to a problem like 
the following: — 

Add 8085, 7898, 7697 and 9876. 

We are thus particular and emphatic, concerning 
the early steps of mathematical education, rpj^gg^gt. 
because it is ''the first step which costs.'' step costs. 
Much more labor is required to unlearn than to learn. 
The teachers for the younger classes should possess par- 
ticular aptness for imparting instruction. Such teach- 
ers deserve and are beginning to receive better wages. 

After the pupils have mastered the fundamental rules 
and their reasoning powers begin to develop, 
the teacher should require an analysis of the 
problem. 

The mechanical operation — the doing part, should 
not be confounded with the logical operation — the 
thinking part, but the latter has its place. Thus: 

What is the sum of 8764. 9789, 5786 aud 9843? 

8764 
9789 
5786 
9843 

34,182 



198 . ARITHMETIC. 

I have written the numbers so that units of the same order 
stand under each other. For convenience I will begin at the 
right hand; adding the first order, the sum is 22 units. As ten 
units make one ten, 22 units are equal to 2 tens and 2 units; I will 
write the 2 units in the order of units, and add the two tens to the 
order of tens. 

Proceed in this manner with each order, giving the 
reasons for every step. 

Eequire the pupils to deduce the rule from the 
analysis. 

Analysis of Concrete Problem. 

Problem : — If a horse cost $120, and a wagon $110, 
and a harness $90, what will be the entire expense? 

A^ialysis : — The entire expense will be the sum of 
$120, $110, and $90; or $320. 

The simplest and most concise analysis should be 
taught to the children. No unnecessary words should 
be allowed in the analysis of a problem. 

Subtraction. 
This subject should be taught like addition, begin- 
First by ning with objects, first by taking away one ob- 
objects jgp^^ |.|^^j-^ ^^^^ objects, etc. After the pupils 

have become familiar with this process, then use marks 
on the board, subsequently using concrete numbers 
without having objects before them. At first ask the 
pupils to answer in concert, followed by individual drill. 
After the children have become familiar with the pre- 
ceding processes, the teacher may write num- 
y gures. ^^^^ ^^ ^j^^ board as far as 9, and require the 

children to subtract one, then two, then three, etc. 
Vary the processes. For rapid work Sanford's cards 
will be found effective. 



SUBTRACTION". 199 

When the figure in the subtrahend is greater in value 
than the corresponding figure in the minu- Minuend 
end, the process must be explained clearly. ^'^^^^^• 
Subtract 456 from 824. 

824 ^^. 7 11 14 
456 4 5 6 



368 3 6 8 

I have written the numbers as in addition, writing the subtra- 
hend under the minuend. Analysis. 

Begin at the right hand to subtract. Six units from 4 units I 
cannot take; take 1 ten from the 2 tens and it equals 10 units; 10 
units and four units are 14 units; 6 units from 14 units equal 8 
units; write underneath in the units order. 

Five tens from 1 ten I cannot take; take 1 hundred from 8 
hundreds and it equals 10 tens; 10 tens and 1 ten equal 11 tens; 5 
tens from 11 tens equal 6 tens; write it underneath in the tens order. 
Four hundreds from 7 hundreds leave 3 hundreds, etc. 

By this process it will be observed that the form of 
the minuend was changed without altering its value. 
The subtrahend in form remained unchanged. The 
teacher should see that the pupils understand that 8 
hundreds, 2 tens and 4 units are of the same value as 7 
hundreds, 11 tens and four units. 

This is a simple analysis and easily understood. 

I cannot take 6 units from 4 units; so will add 10 units to 4, 
equal 14 units; 6 units from 14 units equal 8 units; 
as I have added 10 units to the minuend, in order to "Explanation, 
preserve the equality, I must add 10 units or 1 ten to 
the subtrahend; adding 1 ten to 5 tens equals 6 tens; 6 tens from 2 
tens I cannot take; I will add 10 tens to two tens, equal to 12 tens; 
6 tens from 12 tens equal 6 tens; as I have added 10 tens or 1 hun- 
dred to the minuend I must add 1 hundred to the hundreds in the 
subtrahend; 4 hundreds and 1 hundred are 5 hundreds, and 5 hun- 
dreds from 8 hundreds leave 3 hundreds. This depends upon the 



200 ARITHMETIC. 

principle that to add equal numbers to both minuend and sub- 
trahend does not alter the value of the remainder. 

This analysis ma}^ be required in addition to the first, 
but is not to be preferred to it. 

Ciphers in the When there are ciphers in the minuend^ 
minuend. i]^q explanation is similar. 
Subtract 456 from 1000. 

9 9 10 

10 

4 5 6 



5 4 4 
Analysis: — There are no units in the units order, no tens in 
the tens order, no hundreds in the hundreds order. In 1000 there 
are 9 hundreds, 9 tens and 10 units. Six units from 10 units equal 
4 units; 5 tens fom 9 tens equal 4 tens; 4 hundreds from 9 hundreds 
equal 5 hundreds. (The form of the minuend has been changed, 
but not its value.) Deduce the rule. 

MULTIPLICATIOlf. 

Problem: — What will 40 books cost at $9 apiece. 

Analysis : — Since one book costs $9, 40 books will cost 40 times- 
$9, equal to $300. 

The teacher should insist that the pupils use the true 
multiplier in all concrete problems. 

Drill upon the multiplication table. Require pupils 
to say it forward, backward and irregularly, till every 
product of two numbers presents itself to the mind 
instantly. Make constant use of Sanford's cards. 

Division. 
Begin with objects; ask questions as follows: What 
First by havc I on my table? One apple. How many 

objects. times can I take one from it? 07ice. What 

have 1 placed on my table? Two pencils. How many 
times can I take one pencil from my table? Tiuo times. 



multiplication; division. 201 

Each may place one watch on his desk. How many 
times can you take one watch from your desk? Once. 
Place three drums on your desk. How many times can 
you take three drums from your desk? Once. How 
many times can you take one drum from the desk? 
Three times, etc. 

Place eight books on the desk. How many times can 
you take four books from the desk? 

How many times can you take two books? Once, 
tioice, three times, four times. How many times can you 
take one book? Once, tivice, -etc. Place sixteen pencils 
on the desk. How many times can I take four pencils 
from them? 

Place ten coins on the desk, and divide them into two 
equal parts; how many coins in each part? Place nine 
books on the desk, and divide them into three equal 
parts; how many in each part? Take away one part, 
how many j^rtr^s Avill remain? Take away one part, how 
many books will remain? Place sixteen pencils on the 
desk, and divide them into four equal parts; how many 
pencils are there in each part? 

By the use of oral abstract questions, thus: How 
many two^s in 8? In 2? In 14? In 10? 
How many times can four be taken from 8? stractnum- 

bcrs 

From 24? From 32? Twelve is how many 
times 2? How many times 4? How many times 6? 
How many times are four contained in 8? In 12, in 
20? etc. Sixteen contains 2 how many times? Contains 
4? Contains 8? etc. What is one-third of 9? Of 15? 
Of 21? Of 18? etc. 

N 



202 ARITHMETIC. 

It is usual to teach the subject of addition by itself, 
The Grub6 then Subtraction, etc. By the Grube method 
method. ^]^q pupil begins with 1, and learns all there 

is to know about it before passing over another number, 
performing all the operations possible within the limits 
of this number. He has to see and keep in mind that — 

1+1=2, 1x1=1 1-1=0, l-^l = l, etc. 
2+1=3, 3x1=3 2-1 = 1, 24-1=2, etc. 

The whole circle of operations up to 2 is exhausted 
before he goes on to the number 3, which is to be treated 
in the same way. 

The first four processes are naturally connected, and 
will appear so in the child^s mind. 

If you take away 1 from 2, and 1 remains, the child 
in knowing this also understands implicitly the opposite 
process of adding 1 to 1 and its result. 

Multiplication and division are, in the same way, 
nothing but another way of adding and subtracting, so 
that we might say one operation contains, and may be 
shown to contain, all the others. 

'^ You must teach the child to know the numbers in 
some way or other, ^' but " to know a number really 
means to know also its most simple relations to the num- 
ber contained therein.'^ Any child who knows a num- 
ber and its relations, must be also able to perform the 
operations of addition and subtraction, etc., with it, as 
they are the direct result of comparing two numbers 
with each other. Only when the child can perform all 
these operations, for instance within the limits of 2, 
can it be supposed really to have a perfect knowledge of 
this number. 



THE GRUBE METHOD. 203 

This seems to be a rational method and worthy of a 
trial; it has proved superior in practice to the methods 
in use. 

A full exposition of this method, commonly known 
as the Grube method, may be found in Beebe's First 
Steps Among Figures. 

A knowledge of the process must precede any attempt 
to give a theory or to supply a rule. Theory, Processes 
in fact, implies that the conceptions it em- ^^^^re rules, 
braces are already in the mind, and the rule is universal 
that it springs from or is based on practice. 

The process must be made clear by examples from 
experience, aided in every possible way by sensible repre- 
sentations, either objects, marks, or diagrams. When 
these have set forth the process, it should be made 
familiar by well- constructed examples to be worked 
mentally. 

This, when a process is clear and intelligent, is a 
matter only of a memory, and depends on Accuracy 
practice. The two things to be secured are ^°^ rapidity. 
accuracy and rapidity. These important habits may 
be established by a tliorough knowledge of all the tables, 
and abundant practice in computation. 

To acquire facility in operation the teacher should 
require the pupils to bring in to the daily written 
recitation a written analysis of one or two ^"''^^y'^^^- 
problems. The mechanical process also should be re- 
quired, and the work should be neatly and correctly ex- 
pressed. This work should be examined by the teacher, 
else the pupils will lose interest in its performance and 
become careless in the mechanical execution. 



204 arithmetic. 

examii^e and cross-examine the pupils in their 
work, and see if they can give a reason eor 
every step. 

Suggestions to Teachers. 

1. We cannot impress too strongly upon the teacher's 
mind that each lesson in arithmetic must beat the same 
time a lesson in language. As the pupil in the primary 
grade should be generally held to answer in complete 
sentences with clear and distinct articulation, so especial- 
ly in arithmetic, the teacher should insist on fluency, 
smoothness and neatness of expression, and lay special 
stress upon the process of the solution of each example. 

2. Teachers should avoid asking too many questions. 

Such questions, moreover, as by containing 
piisdothe half the answer, prompt the scholar, should 
^"^' be omitted. The pupil should do the talking 

as much as possible. 

3. No new numbers should be commenced before the 
Memory a prcvious ouc is perfectly mastered. It would 
factor. i^g ^ mistake to suppose that in teaching ac- 
cording to this plan, memory is not required on the 
part of the child. Memory is an important factor here,, 
as it is an all instruction. I say this boldly, though I 
know with some teachers it has become almost a crime 
to say that memory holds its place in education. 
Redundant ^- Analyses given by pupils are often re- 
anaiysis. dundant. 

Problem : — James bad five cents and he found seven more ; 
how many had he then? 

First Step. — James had five cents and he found seven more; 
how many had he then? 



KEDUISTDANT ANALYSIS. 205 

Second Step. — He had as many as the sum of five cents and 
seven cents. 

Third Stej). — Five cents plus seven cents are twelve cents. 

Fourth Step. — Therefore, if James had five cents, and he found 
seven more, he then had twelve cents. 

In the above analysis, as it is given in many schools, 
the pupils have used fifty-one words. No business man 
in solving this problem would go through with this 
rigmarole. If the teacher repeats the problem it is not 
necessary for the pupil to repeat it. There is no ob- 
jection to the pupil's reading the problem from the 
book. 

The great object sought for in the study of arithme- 
tic, is to develop and strengthen the reasoning powers. 

It is a positive injury to require pupils to commit to 
memory simple arithmetical problems that are of no 
yalue whatever after the answer is attained. 

The following analysis is to be preferred: 
Since James had five cents, and found seven cents, he had the 
sum of five cents and seven cents, or twelve cents. 

In this analysis we have used twenty-two words, 
instead of fifty-one. ''Therefore/' etc., at the close of 
a problem is unnecessary repetition. 

Problem:— A. boy having seven marbles, lost five of them; how 
many had he left? 

First Step. — He had as many left as the difference between 
seven marbles and five marbles. 

Second Step. — Seven marbles minus five marbles are two mar- 
bles. 

Third Step. — Therefore, if a boy having seven marbles lost five 
of them, he has two left. 

This is better: 

Since a boy having seven marbles lost five of them, he had 
left the difference between seven marbles and five marbles, equal 
to two marbles. 



206 ARITHMETIC. 

Problem : — At seven dollars a pair, what will five pairs of boot» 
cost? 

First Step. — If one pair costs seven dollars, five pairs (or more 
frequently, five pairs which arc five times one pair) will cost five 
times seven dollars. 

Second Step. — Five times seven dollars are thirty-five dollars. 

Third Step. — Therefore, at seven dollars a pair, five pairs will 
cost thirty-five dollars. 

Say instead: 

Since one pair costs seven dollars, five pairs will cost five times 
seven dollars, equal to thirty -five dollars. 

Problem : — If a man laid out $100 for cows, and paid $20 for 
each one he bought, how many cows did he buy? 

First Step. — If one cow cost $20, he bought as mauj'^ cows for 
$100 as 20 is contained times in 100. 

Second Step. — 20 is contained in 100 5 times. 

Third Step. — Therefore, if a man laid out $100 for cows, and 
paid $20 for each one that he bought, he bought 5 cows. 

How much better to say: 

He bought as many cows as $20 is contained times in $100, or 
5 cows. 

Some meet with difficulty in analyzing problems in 
Concrete division, Avhcu they consist of concrete num- 
division. bers. Division is finding how many times 

one number can be subtracted from another of the same 
kind. 

Dollars can be divided by dollars and by nothing else; 
yards can be divided by yards and by nothing else; and 
so on for any other things that might be mentioned. 

That dollars can only be divided by dollars arises from 
the fact that division is but a short process of finding 
how many times one number or quantity can be sub- 
tracted from another, and we can subtract only dollars 



ANALYSIS IN DIVISION. 207 

from dollars; therefore we can divide dollars only by- 
dollars. Thus: 

Divide $42 equally among 6 men. Now we cannot divide $42 
by 6 men or by 6; but if we give each man a dollar, then that will 
require $6, and $6 can be subtracted from $42 seven times. 
Hence we can give each man a dollar seven times, or we can give 
$7 at one time. 

After the operation is performed, we may call the 7, 
seven dollars; then the 6 will be a mere number, and 
thus, indirectly, we may divide 142 by 6. 

Practically, however, all such operations are performed 
abstractly, as 42, 6, 7, taken as mere numbers. 

The study and solution of examples and their dis- 
cussion in the class involve the following points to be 

Doints * emphasized. 

1. Correct reading. Not one pupil in twenty reads a 
new kind of problem correctly the first time. 

2. Examination preparatory to solution. A celebrated 
mathematician said that if his life depended on solving 
a complicated problem within an hour, he would give 
the first thirty minutes to studying it before putting 
down a figure. 

3. Analysis and solution. 

4. Reviewing, to see that there are no errors. 

5. General correction by the rule of Common Sense. 
A mistake in pointing off may make a barrel of flour cost 
70 cts. or $70, but the pupil's common sense should 
teach him that neither is possible. 

Keep in mind the following cautions. cautions. 

1. Present single ideas, single facts and single diffi- 
culties. 

2. Call up each point in the lesson frequently. 



208 ARITHMETIC. 

3. Teach simple processes. 

4. Keep the mind active. 

5. See that pupils get a clear perception of principles. 

6. Fix and hold the attention. 

i 1. Correct perception. 

Mental discipline, -j 2. Attention. 
( 3. Practice. 

R-""- < 2. Practical business ( ^ A-racy. 

preparation. 1 3 Rapidity. • 

3. Preparation for advanced study. 
The analysis of a problem is the same in mental as in 
Mental Written aritlimetic. The difference is that 

arithmetic. mental arithmetic is limited to problems 
that may be performed mentally^ without recourse to 
written symbols. It is a fact that those pupils v>^ho 
have been trained carefully in mental arithmetic take 
up the principles of higher mathematics more readily. 
The language used should be suthcient to render the 
solution of the example clearly intelligible to a listener, 
yet so brief as not to retard the process of mental calcula- 
tion. Mental arithmetic should both precede and ac- 
company the written arithmetic, step by step. In fact 
it would be much the better way to select a text-book 
that contained exercises in both mental and written 
arithmetic. In mental arithmetic the langtiage should 
be clear, and the words enunciated distinctly. No 
hesitancy should be permitted — pupils should pass 
through the solution rapidly. Pupils should be re- 
quired to construct original problems, and random 
exercises should be given by the teacher in addition, 
subtraction, multiplication, and division, to teach rapid- 
ity and accuracy in computation. 



MENTAL ARITHMETIC. 209 

The teacher should give diversified problems of a 
practical nature to the class. 

There is a great deal of perfectly barren mathemat- 
ical knowledge in this country, particularly practical 
among those who have studied, not for application, 
knowledge, but for a certificate or a diploma. 

Not unfrequently do we meet teachers who can dem- 
onstrate problems in algebra and geometry, who at the 
same time cannot make the least application of them. 
Again, we have met teachers who have graduated at the 
higher institutions of learning, who have passed over 
the rules of arithmetic — finished the study — who would 
be unable to determine how many feet there are in a 
board 12 feet in length and 12 inches wide. 

They seem to be unaware that the rules of arithmetic 
were ever intended for any practical purpose. 

Knowledge, so confined and abstract, is of doubtful 
utility, even as a mental discipline. Theory Theory and 
and practice should be united, or we per- p^'^^*^^^®- 
ceive nothing of the beauties of mathematics. '' De- 
tached propositions and abstract mathematical princi- 
ples give us no better idea of true and living science 
than detached words and abstract grammar would give 
us of poetry or rhetoric.'^ Small acquirements in mathe- 
matics serve only to make us timid, cautious, and dis- 
trustful of our own powers — but a step or two further 
gives us life, confidence, and power. 

Mathematics should not be studied merely for disci- 
pline. The object should be to understand Mental disci- 
the subject and make it useful. Those who ^^'"^' 
teach with no other view than giving discipline to the 
minds of their pupils, never more than half teach. 



210 ARITHMETIC. 

Let a person undertake the study of any science with 
no other object than discipline and the science will come 
to him with difficulty. But let him begin the study 
determined to understand it and avail himself of it, and 
the science will come to him with ease, and with it a 
iiscipline of mind, the most effective he can attain. 

In the application of arithmetic there are two dis- 
LoRic of tinct operations, the logical and the mechan- 

arithmetic. ino] 

In too many schools greater attention is given to the 
mechanical. To some extent this is quite necessary, 
and pupils should be made very familiar with elemen- 
tary processes; but after they become expert in compu- 
tation, greater attention should be given to calculation, 
— the thinking. The undisciplined direct their atten- 
tion more to the doing than to the thinking, when it 
should be the reverse; and nearly all the efforts of the 
good teacher are directed to making his pupils reason 
correctly. If a person fails in an arithmetical problem, 
the failure is usually in the logic, for false logic directs 
to false reasoning, and true logic points out true opera- 
tions. 

11. FKACTIOXS. 

It is well to introduce the study of fractions by ob- 
iective teaching. For this purpose the best 

Objects first. '^. . . .^ . i i 4. i, • "u 

device is a series of equal spheres, of which 
one is whole, another is divided into halves, and the 
others into thirds, fourths, fifths, sixths, eighths, etc. 
These have been provided in what is known as Davis^s 
Fractional Apparatus. A similar but less perfect device 
is a series of circles correspondingly subdivided. Most 



FRACTIOHrS. 211 

teachers will have to make use of apples or other objects 
obtained without expense. Whatever is used, the fol- 
lowing definitions should all be made so clear that every 
pupil can illustrate them by the objects employed. 

The term unity in mathematical science is applied 
to any number or quantity regarded as a 

, , , , ^ . • 1 , . , Definitions. 

whole; the term unit m arithmetic, to any 
number that is used as the base of a collection. 

Every number, whether integral or fractional, has th& 
unit 1 for a primary base. 

A quantity regarded as a whole, called a tcnit, is the 
primary base of every fraction. 

One of equal parts of a unit called the fractional unit, 
is the secondary base of every fractional number. 

The value of a fraction is the number of times it con^ 
tains the unit 1. 

The quantity or unit that is divided into equal parts 
is the icnit of the fraction. 

One of the equal parts is called a fractional unit. 

In f of a pound, 1 pound is the unit of the fraction, 
and i of the pound i\iQ fractional unit. 

A fractional unit or a collection of fractional units is 
a fraction. (Or a fraction may be considered one or 
more of the equal parts of a unit, these parts correspond- 
ing to fractional units.) 

Two integers are required to express a fraction, one 
above a short horizontal line to denote the number of 
fractional units, called the numerator; it numbers, or 
expresses how many are taken. The other below the 
line, expresses how many fractional units it is divided 
into, and is called the denominator; it denominates or 



212 ARITHMETIC. 

names and expresses how many fractional units are 
equal to a unit. 

The numerator and denominator taken together are 
called terms of the fraction. 

Fractions are of three kinds, commofi, decimal and 
duodecimal. One or more of the equal parts of a quan- 
tity, expressed by two numbers, one written above the 
other with a line between them, is a common fraction — 

3. 5 jiriH 3 

4, yg cinu -g. 

Its denominator is other than ten, or some power of 
ten. 

A fractional number, whose value is less than a unit, 
is 2i proper fraction, as f, |. It is so termed because it 
expresses a value less than 1. An improjjer fraction 
is not properly a fraction of a unit, the value expressed 
being equal to or greater than 1. 

A single fraction, either proper or improper, is a 
simple fraction, f, |. 

A fraction of a fraction, or several fractions joined by 
of, is termed a compound fraction, as 2-4 of 7-8 of 3-12. 

A fraction in the numerator, or denominator, or both, 

IS termed a complex fraction, as ^,^ 

I "I 
Unity divided by any number is termed a reciprocal; 

thus the reciprocal of 4 is \. 

An integral number added to a fractional number is 

termed a mixed number, as o-\-^, 7+f. The sign of 

addition is usually omitted. 

Gei^eral Principles. 

1. Multiplying the numerator increases the value of 
the fraction. 



FRACTIONS. 2ia 

Because it increases the numher of fractional units while the 
value of the fractional unit remains the same. 

2. Multiplying the denominator decreases the value 
of the fraction. 

Because it diminishes the value of the fractional unit, while 
the number remains the same; it diminishes the value of the frac- 
tional unit because the unit of the fraction is divided into a 
greater number of fractional units, and each fractional unit is as 
many times less in value as there are units in the multiplier. 

3. Multiplying both numerator and denominator by 
the same number does not alter the value of the fraction. 

Because it increases the number of fractional units, as many 
times as it decreases the value of the fractional unit; that is in the 
same ratio. 

4. Dividing the numerator decreases the value of the 
fraction. 

Because it diminishes the 7i?^w5er of the fractional units, while 
the value of the fractional unit remains the same. 

5. Dividing the denominator increases the value of 
the fraction. 

Because it increases the value of the fractional unit, while the 
number remains the same; it increases the value of the fractional 
unit because the unit of the fraction is divided into a less number 
of fractional units, each fractional unit being as many times 
greater in value as there are units in the divisior. 

6. Dividing both numerator and denominator by the 
same number does not alter the value of the fraction. 

Because it diminishes the number of fractional units as many 
times as it increases the value of the fractional unit. 

7. If the numerator be multiplied by any number, 
the number of fractional units will be increased as many 
times as there are units in the multiplier. 



214 ARITHMETIC. 

8. If the numerator be divided by any number, the 
number of fractional units will be diminished as many 
times as there are units in the divisior. 

9. If the denominator be multiplied by any number, 
the fractional units will be diminished as many times as 
there are units in the multiplier. 

10. If the denominator be divided by any number, the 
value of the fractional units will be increased as many 
times as there are units in the divisor. 

Naming the quantity or unit divided, the value of 
Analysis of ^^^^ ^^ ^^^ fractional units, the number of 
a fraction. fractional units, the denominator, numerator 
and the terms of the fraction, is to analyze a fraction. 
Thus: 

Analyze the fraction |. 

I is a fraction because it expresses 4 of the equal parts of a 
unit. 1 is the unit of the fraction, or the unit that is divided to 
form the fraction, \ is the fractional unit, or one of the equal 
parts of the unit divided. 5 is the denominator; it names the 
parts; it shows that the unit is divided into 5 equal parts; it tells 
the size or value of each part. 4 is the numerator; it numbers 
the parts taken to form the fraction ; it is written above the line. 
4 and 5 are the terms of the fraction, and its value is 4-T-5. 

Processes. 
Lowest Fractions are reduced to their lowest terms 

^^^^- as follows: 

Reduce |§ to its lowest terms. 
16 -f- 4 ^4 
20 -^ 4 5 
Dividing If by I =f; as the numerator and denominator are 
prime to each other, the fraction is reduced to its lowest terms. 
This depends upon the following principal: Dividing both terms 
of the fraction by the same number does not alter the value of 



. FRACTIONS. 215 

the fraction, because the number of fractional units is decreased 
as many times as the value of the fractional unit is increased. 
(Deduce the rule.) 

Improper fractions are reduced to integer Reduction of 

. T , „ ,, improper 

or mixed numbers as follows: fractions. 

Reduce i|^ to an integeral number. 

i|5 ^ I = 25. or 5) ifi = -Y- = 25. 

In 1 there are 5 fifths; in 125 fifths, as many ones as 5 is con- 
tained times in 125, or 25. This depends upon the following 
principle: Dividing both terms of the fraction by the same num- 
ber does not alter the value of the fraction; the same reason as 
when we reduce fractious to their lowest terms. (Deduce the 
rule.) 

Integers or mixed numbers are reduced to integers 
improper fractions as follows: reduced. 

Reduce 49| to fifths. 

f X 49 = ^1^ 

n^ + I = H"- 
In one there are 5 fifths; in 49 ones, 49 times 5 fifths, or 245 
fifths; plus 2 fifths equals 247 fifths. This depends on the follow- 
ing principle: Multiplying both terms of the fraction by the same 
number does not alter the value of the fraction, because the num- 
ber of fractional units is increased as many times as the value of 
the fractional unit is decreased. (Deduce the rule.) 

Fractions are reduced to a common de- cojumon 

nominator as follows: denominator. 

Reduce |, |. |, J/. 

3 X 24 _ 72^ 

5 X 24 120 

3 X 20 _ m_ 

6 X 20 120 

4 X 15 _ 60^ 
8 X 15 120 
15 X 30 _ 450 

4 X 30 120 



216 ARITHMETIC. • 

The least common multiple of the denominators is 120; divid- 
ing the least common multiple by the denominator of the first 
fraction, we have the quotient 24; multiplying both terms of the 
fraction by 24, we have -jy^. This depends upon the following 
principle: multiplying both terms of the fraction by the same 
number, does not alter the value of the fraction, because it in- 
creases the number of fractional units as many times as it decreases 
the value of the fractional unit. (The same analysis for the re- 
maining fractions.) 

Addition. Fractions may be added as follows: 

Add f and f . 

.•5 12 — 5 — 11 
-f -t" ^ — T — -l^. 

As the fractions have the &'dmefractio7ialtmit,vieTaaya,dd 
the numerators; f -|- I = I — H- 

Add I and f . 

As the fractions f and f have dlSerent fractional tuiifs, first re- 
duce them to fractions having the same fractional unit, f is 
equal to |f; f equal to ||; now as the fractions are of the same 
fractional unit value, we may add the numerators: || -f- || = |f 
= 1||. (Deduce the rule.) 

One fraction is subtracted from another as fol- 

Subtraction. lows: 
Subtract f from f . 

2 — 8 

6 — ¥?r 
i — i% 

15 8 7 

^TT -2X7 — m* 

The fractions f and | have different fractional units. First re- 
duce the fractions to the same fractional unit value, ;| equals ^f ; 
f is equal to ^%; as the fractions are of the smug fr act io7ial unit 
value, we may subtract one numerator from the other, giving us 
■^jj. (Deduce the rule.) 

Multiplication Fractions are multiplied by an integer aa 

by an integer. foUo^yg. 

Multiply j\ by 4. 

^ X 4 _ 8 _ 1 

16 16 2 

2 _ 2 ^ 1 

16 -*- 4 =^ 4 2 



FRACTIONS. 217 

Multiplying^ ^^ by 4, by multiplying the numerator is equal to 
Tff or |. This depends upon Principle 1, Multiplying the num- 
erator increases the value of the fraction, because it increases the 
number of fractional units, while the value of the fractional unit 
remains the same. 

Again, multiplying y\ by 4, by dividing the denominator, is 
equal to f or ^. This depends upon Principle 5. Dividing the 
denominator increases the value of the fraction, because it in- 
creases the value of the fractional unit, while the number remains 
the same; it increases the value of the fractional unit, because 
the unit of the fraction is divided into a less number of fractional 
units, and each fractional unit is as many times greater in value 
as there are units in the divisor. (Deduce the rule.) 

We multiply a whole number by a fraction Multiplication 

as follows: by a fraction. 

Multiply 24 by f . 

fl^. i X 24 = -2^ 

-V- X 2 = -4/ = 16. 

&. ^ of 24 = 8 
8 X 2 = 16. 

c. 24 X 2 - 48 
48 -f- 3 = 16. 

a. Once 24 is 24; i times 24 is V. t times 24 is 2 times ^^ or 
4/- = 16, Ans. 

b. i of 24 is 8; f , 2 times 8 or 16, Ans. 

e. Multiplying 24 by 2 = 48; as the multiplier is three times 
too great in value, the product is three times too great in value. 
To give the correct value divide by 3, which gives us 16, Ans. 
(Deduce a rule.) 

Note. — See that the pupil understands that f of 1 is the same 
as i of 2. 

We multiply one fraction by another as follows: 

Multiply I by |. 

a. I X I or 1 = |. 



S V 5 — ! 5 



o 



318 ARITHMETIC. 



1 5 

— ?¥• 



a. f multiplied by | or 1 = f ; f multiplied by | is equal to /^. 
Since f multiplied by | is equal to ^, f multiplied by f will be 
equal to 5 times ^ or |^. 

b. Multiplying f by f is the same as multiplying by the eighth 
part of 5. First multiply f by 5 = Y; ^^ the multiplier is eight 
times too great in value the product will be eight times too great 
in value; hence to get its required value divide Y^ ^J 8, by multi- 
plying the denominator, which gives ||. 

Division by We divide a fraction by an integer as fol- 

an integer. j^^^g. 

Divide f by 3. 

a. Q-i-3 = 2_ 
7 7. 

&. 6 ^ ^ ^ 2 
7X3 21 7' 
Dividing | by 3 = f ; according to the principal which says: 
Dividing the numerator decreases the value of the fraction, be- 
cause it diminishes the number of fractional units, while the value 
of the fractional unit remains the same. 

Again, dividing f by 3, by multiplying the denominator is 
equal to -£j; multiplying the denominator decreases the value of 
the fraction, because it decreases the value of the fractional unit, 
^hile the number of fractional units remains the same; it dimin- 
ishes the value of the fractional unit, because the unit of the frac- 
tion is divided into a greater number of fractional units, and each 
fractional unit is as many times less in value as there are units in 
the multiplier. (Deduce the rule.) 

Division by ^^ divide a whole number by a fraction as 

a fraction. follows: 

Divide 8 by |. 

a. f X 8 =^. 

&. 8 H- 3 = 2f . 
2f X 5 = 13i 



GENERAL REMARKS. 219 

a. In one there are f ; in 8, 8 times f = V; V" divided by 



i = 13i 



b. Divide 8 by f , or the fifth part of three; dividing 8 by 3 
gives us 2f ; now as the divisor is five times too great in value, 
the quotient is only one-fifth of its required value; to get its re- 
quired value; multiply the quotient by five, which gives us 13|. 
(Deduce the rule.) 

We divide a fraction by another fraction as follows: 

Divide f by f . 

4 4 4X38 4 13 

^ =^ =U ^x^ = ? = u ^ = - 

4X38 8 8 3 13 

1 ^ ^ = V 
12 ' 12 ^ 

a. 1 is contained in ^, three-fourth times; ^ is contained in f, 
three times f, or | times; f will be contained in |, | of f, or | 
times. 

b. Dividing f by 3 gives us f ; as the divisor is three times too 
great in value, the quotient is only ^ of its required value; multi- 
plying the quotient | by 3 gives us f = 1|. 

c. Reduce f and f to a common denominator, f is equal to 
^; I is equal to j\; ^^ divided by j^^ is equal to | or 1\. 

III. GENERAL EEMARKS. 

It is not expected in a manual for teachers to explain 
every rule in arithmetic. A few rules have suggestive 
been carefully explained and illustrated in ^^^^y^^s- 
detail; and these are suggestive only. The plan of this 
work has been to give a course of reasoning leading to 
those conclusions from which rules are drawn, — and this 
is given in language free from technicalities, and easy to 
be understood. 

The explanations are so given as to put the pupil into 
the place of the original reasoner, until he arrives at a 



220 ARITHMETIC. 

conclusion from which he can deduce the rule for him- 
self. 

After the pupils are familiar with the process and 
Exactness in havc received sufficient drill, they should be^ 
language. taught to analyze problems. The teacher 
should see that the analysis is thoroughly understood 
and accurately recited. Pupils should be required to 
write out an analysis, and the pupil that presents the 
most simple and concise analysis should write it on the 
board, subject to the criticism of the class. See that 
the language is used correctly; that it tells ''the truth, 
the whole truths and nothing hut the truth.'' Now you 
may if you choose require every member of the class to 
commit this approved analysis verbatim, for it will mean 
something to them. 

There are teachers who allow a wide range in the 
forms of analysis as long as the language is good and the 
reasoning logical. While we should insist upon the 
development of individuality and origi7iality on the part 
of the pupils, yet, as mathematics is an exact science, 
the language used in the analysis should he exact. 

I cannot see how language may be cultivated if the 
teachers allow a wide range in the use of words; I call 
that the hest a?ialysis which is the most simple and 
concise. 

It is very common for the pupil to suppose that to 
. , . explain an example simply means to state 

Analysis -^ . •, 

more than what Operations — what processes — are per- 
formed in reaching the results. Hence, he 
will consider it an unreasonable question if asked why 
he added or subtracted, multiplied or divided. 



GENERAL REMARKS. 221 

Such an explanation should never be accepted. To 
explain a problem^ means to assign a reason for each of 
the several steps. I have heard the following given as 
an analysis to a problem in division of fractions: 

Divide f by f . 

" Invert the terms of the divisor and proceed as in multipli- 
•cation." 

The rule tells hoiv to solve the problem; the analysis 
gives the reason for each step. 

A large number of pupils who pass through the entire 
arithmetical course in our best schools fail practical 
to make application of their knowledge. ^'^^^• 
This is owing to a lack of practical application of the 
rules. For example, let them measure the school-room, 
find out the area, measure the yard, fields, etc. ; in all 
the tables make a practical application at the time. 

Too much time is wasted in solving problems in con- 
tinued addition, multiplication, division; I have known 
a class to linger a week upon casting out the 9's in 
addition. All such subjects as these and many others, 
like circulating decimals, true remainder, foreign 
exchange, alligation, algebraical and geometrical prob- 
lems, should be omitted in our public schools. By 
those who wish to pursue advanced studies, the subjects 
quoted may be studied; but, as a majority of the pupils 
leave school at the average age of twelve years, they 
should be drilled upon the subjects that they will be 
•obliged to use through life. 

Pupils should be put to the test in many ways; the 
skilful teacher will not only examine the Frequent 
pupils, but cross-examine them. The teacher ^^^^^• 
should call for original problems; should encourage 



222 ARITHMETIC. 

variety of solutions; should never leave a subject until 
the pupils are able to make ready application of it. 

Pupils should be made familiar with the simplest 
Business forms of Commercial paper; should be able' 
^^"^^' to write a negotiable note, to cash interest 

upon notes where partial payments have been made, to- 
find the profit and loss upon articles bought and sold. 
When practicable bring in real notes given and held by 
men whom the pupils know. No subject is fully mas- 
tered by the pupil until he is able to make use of it in 
this manner. 



Whatever text-books are used, many outside problems should 
be given. Among the books of problems published the best are 
" The Regents' Questions from the first examination in 1866 ta 
June, 1882, being the Questions in Arithmetic, Geography, 
Grammar, and Spelling for the preliminary examinations for ad- 
mission to the University of the State of New York, prepared by 
the Regents of the University, and participated in simultaneously 
by more than 250 academies, forming a basis for the distribution 
of more than a million of dollars." Complete with Key. Cloth^ 
16mo. pp. 473. $2.00. "The Regents' Questions in Arithmetic 
only," in book form, 25 cents.; Key 25 cts. 



GEOGRAPHY. 



Geography acquires its full value as a branch of edu- 
cation only when it loses the character of an accumula- 
tion of facts, undigested by the child^s mind, and be- 
comes real in his memory, linked by association with 
the world of thought and action which immediately 
surrounds it or that which is within it. 

Tell the child to observe the lines of the map which 
hangs perpetually before his eyes, and talk 
to him only of the names upon it, and you 
will soon weary his attention; but speak to him of the 
living men who inhabit that country, — tell him of their 
stature and aspect and dress, and ways of life, and of 
their forms of worship; speak of its climate — of the 
forms of vegetable and animal life with which his eye 
would be conversant if he dwelt there — of trees and 
flowers, and you excite him to a new life. 

FIRST STEPS IN TEACHING GEOGRAPHY. 

/. Talk about the earth as a ivhole — of what it is com- 
posed and ivhat may he found ufon it. 

The heavens catch the child^s attention early, and 
he wishes to know about the sun, moon and ^, 

' Observation 

stars. He has a general knowledge of the fi^^*- 
earth; he has learned something about land and water, 
varieties of surface, the location of places, vegetable 

(223) 



224 GEOGRAPHY. 

products, natural and cultivated_, and the animal and 
mineral kingdoms. 

These things may be said to comprise the elements of 
geographical study; and they may be made the subject 
of direct study by the children. 

With these, the study of geography may begin not 
dy learning luords from a hook, but by actual obserya- 
tion, guided by the oral instruction of the teacher. 

In teaching the first step in geography, explain to the 
The earth children that the sun, moon and stars are 
in space. \2^YgQ balls, and that they resemble the ball 
we live upon. Tell them that we call this ball the 
earth, and '' the earth hangeth upon nothing, ^^ floating 
free in space like a bird in the air. To excite the 
pupils' curiosity, and give them a correct idea of the 
Use of soap- form of the earth, blow a few soap-bubbles 
bubbles. before them, and let them float in the air. 

Tell them that a body of the shape of a ball is called a 
globe or a sphere. Talk about the outside of different 
objects and tell them that the outside of an object is 
called the surface. The outside of the earth is calleti 
the surface of the earth. 

The immense magnitude of the great globe they can- 
not as yet imagine; at first be content to see that they 
understand its form and motion. 

Let the children see that if they should walk on the 
Land and earth a certain number of hours or days in 
water. ^j^y direction, they would come to the water. 

They will now see that the surface of the earth is 
composed of land and water. 

Tell them the fact that one-fourth of the earth's sur- 
face is land and three-fourths is water. 



GENERAL ISTOTIO^STS OF THE EARTH. 225 

Now explain to the child the figures on the globe; 
point out which is meant for land, which for water; and 
show him his own country. 

Draw an oblong figure upon the board and divide it 
into four parts, let three parts represent the water and 
one part the land. Draw a circle upon the colored 
board and let three parts represent the water ^^^y°"- 
and one part the land. Use colored chalk. The illus- 
trations will tend to impress the correct ideas on the 
mind. ^^ Happy illustrations excite curiosity.''^ 

Now, on looking at the globe, the first thing that must 
strike every one is, lioio much more loater there is on it 
than dry land. Tell the children that we may ride for 
days and weeks on water and not see any land. 

Let them see how vei^y unequally the land is arranged; 
instead of being spread evenly all over the surface, it is 
collected together, some joortions very large and some 
very small. Let them see the roughness of the fields 
and roads and hills, not to speak of the high mountains 
or depths of the sea. 

In the foregoing account we have spoken of the earth 
as a sphere, or a globe, or an exactly round shape and 
ball. But this though practically true for ^^^®* 
our purpose, is not strictly correct, for the earth is not 
exactly round. You can see it is not. On so big a ball 
as the earth however, these things do not count for 
much. The earth, although so large, so many miles 
around it, may be travelled over — we can go around it. 
A train of cars at the rate of 41) miles an hour would 
pass around the earth in about 26 days. 

Now, ask the children what may be found upon the 



226 GEOGRAPHY. 

surface of the earth? They will give names 
to the different kinds of matter, such as 
trees, shrubs, plants, rocks, and horses, cows, etc. 

Let them see that the different things named may be 
Divisions of classified. Tell them to name the diffent 
matter. things found within the earth that do not 

grow, as iron, lead, gold, silver, rocks, pebbles, sand, 
etc. Tell that these objects belong to the Mineral 
Class. 

Tell them to name the things only that grow out of 
the earth: as trees, plants, shrubs; the different kinds 
of trees, plants and shrubs. Tell them that these objects 
belong to the Vegetable Class. 

Tell them to name the animals that are found on the 
land, in the water, and in the air. Tell them that these 
objects belong to the Animal Class. 

Ask the children which class they belong to, and tell 
them wherein they differ. That plants grow, breathe, 
take food and die. That brutes do the same; but that 
men differ in that they all possess a mind and a soul. 
Review. Now they have learned: 

1. The earth is a large ball or sphere. 

2. Its surface is composed of land and water; one-fourth is 
land and three-fourths are water. 

3. Minerals, vegetation and animals are found upon the earth. 

//. Give instructio7i upon the relative position of 
objects and places. 

Draw their observation to relation, position or place, 
Relative beginning with the situation of the things 
position. which they see around them, and the dis- 
tances of these from each other. Question the children 
as to the position of objects before them, and lead them 



POINTS OF COMPASS. 227 

to describe how they are placed with regard to each, as 
above, below, on this side or that side, etc. The teacher 
should represent the positions of these objects on the 
board and requets the pupils to copy the representions 
on their slates. These exercises will prepare them to 
appreciate the value of the map. Proceed with fixed 
divisions of space. Make clear the limits and form of 
its boundaries. 

Study the position of objects and places in regard to 
absolute and relative distances. Make the school the 
first division of space. Map with accuracy all the things 
learned, and have the pupils reproduce the representa- 
tions. 

///. Give the children a knowledge of the cardinal 
poiyits of the compass in their use in geographical des- 
cription. 

When children have been accustomed to determine 
the relative position of objects, they must be points of 
let to consider places in the same point of ^*^°^p^^- 
view; and to this end they should be made acquainted 
with the use of the several points of the compass. 

Let the class face the North. Ask them to point 
where the sun rises and where it sets. Tell them that 
the place in the heavens where it rises is called the Bast 
— that in which it sets, the West. Excite them to ob- 
serve, both at home and at school, that the sun rises 
in the East and sets in the West. 

Close the lesson by a simultaneous repetition. 

'*' That direction in which the sun rises is called the 
East; and that in which it sets, the West.^^ 

Begin the next lesson with a repetition of the preced- 
ing one. Call on the children to place themselves with 



"228 GEOGRAPHY. 

their right hand to the East and their left to the West, 
:and then tell them that the point directly before them 
is the North, and that directly behind them the South. 

Ask them to repeat together, " If we stand with our 
right hand to the East and our left hand to the West, 
the point directly before us is the North, and that di- 
rectly behind us the South." Ask the pupils to face 
the East, the South, the West and the North." Let the 
children place a stick or draw a line with the chalk on 
the floor, in the direction of North, South, East and 
West. 

In such exercises the object is to occupy only so much 
time upon each new idea as may suffice to fix it in the 
mind. A figure should be drawn on the board repre- 
senting the compass, or better still a small compass 
should be exhibited. The teacher should see to it that 
the children are firm on one step of the ladder of knowl- 
-edge, before they proceed to another, and not weary and 
•disgust them, by keeping them too long on one subject. 

When we wish to represent the situation of different 
Semi-cardinal P^^ces on paper or on a slate, we call the top 
points. North, the bottom South, the right hand 

East and the left hand West. The teacher writes the 
iour cardinal points on the board. But are things or 
places always exactly at the North, the South, the East 
or the West? Where may they be? They may be be- 
tween any two of these points. A point half way be- 
tween North and East is Northeast. What do you 
think half way between North and West is called? De- 
Yelop the other semi-cardinal points in the same way. 
Drill upon the above facts. Draw a square at the board 



POINTS OF COMPASS. 22^ 

and let the children mark and tell the cardinal and 
semi-cardinal points. 

Draw a circle on the board and mark off the principal 
and intermediate points. 

Let the teacher draw the outline of the room on the 
floor in chalky and mark the position of ob- Mapping the^ 
jects within it, and when a map of the room ^''^^^^• 
is substituted, place it first in a horizontal position. 

Let the pupils place the different articles in the room 
along the northern, the eastern, southern, and western 
boundaries. 

Eequire them to draw the room according to the 
same scale, and mark the relative positions of the objects- 
Let them measure the length of the school room by a 
foot measure; see that it is correctly done. 

Let the children see that we cannot represent the 
dimensions of the room on the board by g^^j^ ^^ ^.^p. 
using the scale of feet, but that we must use resentation. 
the scale of inches. Now let one foot of the room be 
represented by one inch on the slate or board. If the- 
room is twelve feet long, how many inches shall we 
make our line on the slate? Twelve. Proceed in the 
same manner until the children obtain a correct idea of 
a scale. For example, the inch, the foot, the yard, the 
rod, and the mile. 

Teach the location of streets and the direction of 
them; the public building, etc. Let the 
children see that in geography we need not neighbor- 
say top and bottom, right and left, but we 
call them north, south, east and west. When you are 
in front of a globe or map, the top is north, the bottom 



230 GEOGEAPHY. 

is south, the right hand is east, and the left hand is 
west. 

IV. Give instructio7i and drill upo7i geographical 
-definitions. 

Draw an irregular figure on the board representing 
Land ^ue of the divisions of the earth, — say South 

-divisions. America. In drawing the coast, (that is, a 
rib or side — the edge of the land near the sea,) make 
the projections and indentations ^prominent, so that we 
may be able to use the figure to give the children a cor- 
rect idea of the shape of land and water divisions. The 
larger figure will represent one of the mainlands of the 
world, as distinguished from islands, which, though 
large, are still evidently surrounded by the sea; and it 
is called a Continent. 

A prominent projection of land from the coast, — not 
quite an island, not quite surrounded by the water, is 
<;alled a Peninsula. It projects from the mainland or 
body, and generally is quite narrow at the point of pro- 
jection and gradually widens. Where there is a Penin- 
sula there ought to be an Isthmus, which is a neck of 
land connecting it with the mainland. 

Proceed in the same manner to develop all the land 
divisions. Continue the drill until all the children 
understand what is meant by the terms used — such as 
Continent, Peninsula, etc. 

Let the children draw many figures until they are per- 
fectly familiar with all the land divisions. 

Let the children see that all the water of the earth 

Water belongs to one great ocean, sometime called 

divisions. ^j^g gg^^ rj.^2j ^j^gjj^ ^^^^ ^l^g ^^^^^ -g ^j^g 

largest body of water. Talk to them about the extent 



DEFINITIONS. 231 

of the ocean, what is found within its waters, and the 
great thoroughfares of commerce. 

Draw a figure with a prominent indentation in the 
coast, and let the children see that a recess in the coast 
is called a Gulf or Bay. The gulf is usually the nar- 
rower and deeper, and the bay the broader and more open 
of the two. In fact, the words are used without exact- 
ness of distinction. 

A narrow passage of water between two continents, 
not very deep, is called a Strait. A Sound is also a 
narrow passage of water between two continents or 
islands, but much deeper. All of the water divisions 
may be represented on the board in such a manner as 
to convey correct impressions. Develop all the terms 
in the same manner. 

The teacher should not be content until these terms 
are thoroughly understood and mastered. Homeiiius- 
The object of them all is to teach the pupils t^ations. 
about the earth, and they are of no use if they do not 
do that. Get the pupils into the habit of looking at the 
country itself, finding out all the ideas they can and what 
they all mean. 

The most important spot for us all in this and many 
other respects is our homes. What sort of a country is 
it? What about its hills and mountains; its valleys and 
plains; its resources and thoroughfares? Can you 
answer all these questions? It is that sort of inquiry, 
begun at your own home and gradually inclining to 
other countries and scenes till you know all about them, 
that is the useful part of the great science of man and 
nature of which Geography is an important part. Keep 



232 GEOGRAPHY. 

your eyes open, and you will see something to study 
every day of your life. 

The first study of geography shall be based as far as 
General su^- possible upon what the pupils can see about 
gestions. them. Upon this basis they are prepared to 
advance to the study of what they cannot see but must 
take from description — this is the law of development. 

I. Teach direction, and apply it to the school house 
and immediate surroundings. 

II. Teach dimensions, especially the smaller denom- 
inations, with frequent tests. Direction and dimen- 
sions are essential to conception of space and distances 
in space. 

III. Proceed with fixed divisions of space. Make 
clear the form of its boundaries. 

Study the position of things within the space in 
regard to distances and directions. Make the school 
room the first division of space. Map with accuracy 
all the things learned; have the pupils reproduce the 
maps. 

IV. Take the school-house grounds as the second 
division of space and apply the preceding principles; 
thence in succession the district, the township, the 
county, the State, the nation, the world. 

V. Study the vegetation, the animals, and the min- 
erals of the smaller spaces. Give names and uses, dis- 
tinguishing the wild animals and vegetation from those 
which are cultivated. 

VI. Study the occupations and the trades of the 
people. 

VII. Study the manufactures and the forces employed 
in driving the machinery. 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 233 

VIII. Study the commerce and the transportation. 

IX. Study the social, religious, and political organiza- 
tions. 

The above may be all taught objectively, for examples 
of them come within the perception of every ordinary 
child, if he be but taught to use it. 

This local geography should be studied thoroughly 
before undertaking the general study of the world; it 
gives the basis of understanding the subjective treatment. 
Thus: 

X. Study the form, size, and position of the earth. 

XI. Study its surface in respect to land and water 
and their relations. 

XII. In studying particular divisions pursue a natural 
order, viz. : outlines, surface, climate, vegetation, min- 
erals, animals, nations. 

In Map-Drawing the following suggestions Map-draw- 
may be offered: ^^^• 

1. Begin with the school-room and draw a plan of it 
on the board. 

2. Draw around it the plan of the yard. 

3. Let the children measure the dimensions of the 
room and the yard, and draw the plan to various scales. 

4. Draw a map of the neighborhood, village, city, etc. 

5. Let the pu2)ils indicate the various streets, public 
buildings, etc. 

6. Give thorough drill. 

The geography often taught is not true geography; 
it is a miserable hotch-potch of insio^nificant 

Caution 

fragments, and is utterly unworthy the great 
name it bears and the time it occupies. Gigantic facts, 
magnificent generalizations, splendid speculations, in- 
p 



234 GEOGKAPHT. 

volving, as they do, tlie mightiest problems in several 
of the other sciences, are certaiiily not fitting food 
for little children's minds. Their imaginations are 
confounded at its first propositions. The huge round 
world, swinging unsupported in limited space, and 
wheeling with an inconceivable velocity along its track- 
less orbit, parcelled into vast expanses of continent and 
still vaster oceans, and peopled with a billion of human 
beings; what a conception is this to offer to a little child! 
Picture it, explain, illustrate it as we will, it still remains 
a great mystery of which nothing is learned but the 
vaguest ideas. Nor are its later problems less difficult 
than these first and fundamental notions. The alter- 
nations of day and night, with their varying lengths in 
different latitudes and different seasons; the variety and 
succession of the seasons and their relation to climate; 
the precession of the equinoxes; the movements of the 
tides; the flow of the oceanic currents; the sweep of the 
winds; the great laws of climate; the geographical dis- 
tribution of plants and animals, and the migrations and 
varying civilizations of the human race; — these surely 
are not questions for mere tyros in learning and novices 
in study to solve. 

II. ADVANCED GEOGRAPHY. 

In Advanced Geography facts have to be classified, 
Ph sicai generalizations to be made, laws to be dis- 
features first, covered and the connection of causes and 
effects to be established. It is now clearly understood 
that the most profitable way of teaching the geography 
of a country is to take up its^j7^«/s/m//ea^«^res^r.9^, and 
then the facts which depend upon them. To be made 



ADVANCED TEACHING. 235 

acquainted with the j)hysical features of a country is as 
necessary to a geographer as the knowledge of the bones 
and great blood vessels of the human frame is to the 
anatomist. In order to understand the real geography 
of a country, — its organic structure, so to call it, the 
form of its skeleton — that is, of its hills; the magnitude 
and course of its veins and arteries, — that is of its 
streams and rivers, one should conceive it as a whole 
made up of connected parts; and then the position of 
man's dwellings, viewed in reference to these parts, 
becomes at once easily remembered, and intelligible. 

The use of the blackboard in teaching geography is 
now general. Its relation to the use of maps Blackboard 
is better understood than it was. It fur- ^^^ "^^p^- 
nishes the means of exhibiting any portion of a map on 
a larger scale, and bringing out prominently any feature 
that may be required, — maps often confusing because so 
crowded. 

By means of colored chalk, the separate classes of 
facts may be kept distinct and their relation colored 
more clearly shown. All facts presented to <^''^y^^- 
the eye are impressed on the mind. ''The faithful 
sight engraves the knowledge with a beam of light.'" 

In the treatment of this subject, we associate Physi- 
cal and Political Geography as iiisepai'cihle — as one sub- 
ject; — with this fact overlooked geography becomes a 
mass of meaningless details, without either cause or cor- 
relation, while its study degenerates into mere rote 
work. We take as an illustration the study of a single 
division. 



.236 geography. 

Study of Nokth America. 
/. Position, 

1. North America is in the AVestern Hemisphere. 

2. It is the Northern Grand Division. 

3. It is found in the New World. 

II. Extent. 

1. It extends from the Arctic Ocean almost to the 
Equator. 

2. It is about 4,800 miles in length. 

3. It is about 3,000 miles in width. 

4. Its area in square miles is 8,929,660. 

5. It is double the size of Europe, but only one-half 
as large as Asia. 

///. Form. 
1. In form this Grand Division is triangular. 

IV. Outline. 

1. Its outline is irregular. 

2. The projections and indentations are prominent. 

3. The Northern coast is the most irregular. 

4. The Atlantic seaboard is much more indented by 
bays and gulfs than the Pacific coast. 

5. These inbreakings furnish good harbors, and this 
is a commercial advantage. 

V. Coast. 
1. The principal projections from the Northern coast 
Northern ^^^ *^^ Peninsulas of Labrador, Melville and 
coast. Boothia. The principal capes are Cape 

Charles, Cape Chidley, Cape Bathurst, and Cape Bar- 
row. 



STUDY OF KORTH AMERICA. 237 

2. The principal indentations are Hudson's Bay, 
James Bay, Ungava Bay, and Coronation Gulf. 

3. The adjoining islands are Southampton, Fox Land, 
Prince William's Land, Prince of Wales, Prince Albert, 
Melville, and GrinnelFs Land. 

4. The commercial advantages are limited. 

1. The principal projections from the Eastern coast 
are Peninsula of Nova Scotia, Cape Cod, Eastern 
Cape May, Cape Charles, Cape Henry, Cape ^^^^*^- 
Hatteras, Cape Lookout, Cape Canaveral, and Penin- 
sula of Yucatan. 

2. The principal indentations are the Gulf of St. 
Lawrence, Bay of Fundy, Massachusetts Bay, Cape Cod 
Bay, Long Island Sound, Narragansett Bay, and Ches- 
apeake Bay. 

3. The adjoining Islands are Newfoundland, Cape 
Breton, Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket, Long Island, 
Bermuda, Bahama, and the West Indias. 

4. The commercial advantages are unlimited, since 
the Atlantic seaboard lies nearest the great markets of 
the Old World. 

1. The principal projection from the Southern coast 
is the Peninsula of Florida; from the West- ^ ,, 

' Southern 

«rn coast, Corrientes, Cape St. Lucas, Pen- and 

n*- T • /-< Western. 

insula of California, Cape Mendocino, Cape 
Flattery, and the Peninsula of Alaska. 

2. The principal indentations are the Gulf of Mex- 
ico, Bay of Campeche, Bay of Honduras, Gulf of Cali- 
fornia, San Francisco Bay, Gulf of Georgia, Bristol's 
Bay, and Norton Sound. 

3. The adjoining islands on the Western coast are 
Vancouver's, Queen Charlotte's, Sitka, Kodiak, and 
Aleutian. 



238 GEOGRAPHY. 

VI. Straits. 

1. The straits on the Northern coast are Davis Strait^ 
Hudson^s Strait, Frobisher's Strait and Banks Strait; 
on the Eastern coast. Strait of Belleisle and Florida 
Strait; on the Western coast. Strait of Juan de Fuca. 

2. The commercial advantages are limited; few har- 
bors are found on the Southern and Western coasts. 

VII. Relief. 

1. The vertical configuration of the continent or is- 
land — that is, its elevation as a whole — varied by plains, 
table lands, mountains and valley, is called its relief. 

The relief may be said to consist of elevations and 
depressions. 

The forms of relief are exceedingly varied; the eleva- 
tions when they reach or exceed 1000 feet are called 
plateaus or table tabids; when less than 1000 feet, are 
cdiW^di plains ov loiv lands; the term Ai7Z is applied to 
ridges less than 2000 feet in elevation. 

A knowledge of the reliefs of continents is of the ut- 
most importance. 

A difference in altitude of no more than 350 feet, is 
sufficient to produce a change of temperature of one 
degree, being equivalent to a difference of seventy miles 
in latitude. 

Again, the relief of a continent controls its drainage, 
shaping the river basins and directing the course of the 
rivers, and influences to a certain extent the direction 
and character of the winds and the distribution of rivers, 

VIII. Common Features of Continental Relief. 
According to the theory of modern geographers there 
structure of ^^^ *^*^ Continents. There are certain grand 
continents, features common to all — a peculiar combina- 



STUDY OF KORTH AMERICA. 239 

tion of mountain systems, plateaus, and plains. Each 
continent has upon one side of the centre a great mass 
of elevated lands, usually extending throughout its en- 
tire length, and constituting i\\Q primary feature of its 
structure. On the opposite side is found a smaller and 
less elevated mass extending through a part of the con- 
tinent and constituting the secondary feature of the 
continental structure. Between ihQ jjrimary and sec- 
ondary elevations is a central depression, which forms 
the third feature common to all continents. 

These elevated masses are sometimes called the main 
axis and secondary axis of a continent. 

^ , Axes. 

There is a marked unity of structure — one 
common j^lan pervading all the continents. In each of 
the tAvo Americas, the main axis extends through the 
entire length of the continent. The main axis lies near 
the Western shore; the secondary axis near the Eastern. 
Very low jjlains occupy the interior; but the plains on 
the seaward slope of the axis are of only limited extent. 

IX. Surface. 

The surface of Xorth America is naturally divided 
into five parts: 1. The Western or Pacific Highland; 
2. the Low Central Plain; 3. the Eastern or Atlantic 
Highland; and 4. the Pacific and Atlantic Slopes. 

1. The Pacific Highlai^d, or Great Plateau Belt, 
which forms the primary feature of North pacific 
America, occupying almost all of the West- i^is^iand. 
ern half of North America, extends from the Rocky 
Mountains to the Sierra Nevada. 

This region consists of a vast plateau, surmounted by 
two lofty mountain systems, the Rocky Mountains on 



240 GEOGRAPHY. 

the East and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges on 
the West, with numerous shorter parallel ranges lying 
between them. The breadth of the plateau between 
the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevadas is not less 
than GOO miles, and the more Northern portions have a 
breadth of about 300 miles; the plateau is quite low in 
the North, but rises gradually as it extends to the South. 
The elevation increases, through a succession of swells 
and depressions, from 800 feet near the Arctic shore to 
8000 feet in the table-land of Mexico, whence it de- 
creases rapidly Southward. 

The Rocky Mountains form the main watershed in 
the United States, and feed five of the largest rivers, — 
the Missouri, the Rio Grande, the Colorado, the Colum- 
bia, and the Yukon. This highland includes the basins 
of the Columbia and the Colorado rivers, and between 
them the Great Basin of Utah. 

The Pacific Plateau extends from the Rocky Chain on 
the East to the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Mountains 
on the West. The Eastern slope is short and abrupt, 
its base resting upon the plateau, which is from 2,000 
to 4,000 feet in elevation. The Western slope is long 
and gentle, descending into extensive valleys which are 
but little above the level of the sea. 

Low mountains called the Coast Range lie between 
these border chains and the Pacific Ocean. The Coast 
Range North of Cape Flattery is broken into a series of 
islands. The Rocky Mountains rise to a height of 
8,000 feet above the surrounding country; they are 
from 12,000 to 15,000 feet above the sea level. 



STUDY OF NORTH AMERICA. 241 

2. a. The Atlantic Highlands form the secondary 
feature of the continent, and they extend Atlantic 
from the Northern coast of Labrador nearly Highlands, 
to the Gulf of Mexico, approaching, but not meeting 
the Western Highlands on the South. This region con- 
sists of the plateau of Labrador, with the Laurentide 
Mountains on the North of the St. Lawrence, and the 
Appalachian System and the adjacent low plateaus on 
the South. 

h. The Labrador Plateau is about 2,000 feet in eleva- 
tion, and the Laurentide Mountains are rarely above 
4,000 feet. 

c. The Appalachian region is composed of a succes- 
sion of low, parallel mountain ranges, separated by long, 
trough-like valleys; and a plateau about 2,000 feet 
high, which descends gently from the crest of the west- 
ernmost range towards the interior of the continent. 

The average height of the mountain chain is about 
3,000 feet. The highest peaks are from 6,000 to 6,700 
feet in elevation. It has very little table-land. 

3. a. The Low Central Plain lies between the 
two highlands of the continent which, with 

but slight variations of level, stretch from central 

Plain 

the Arctic shores to the Gulf of Mexico. A 
slight swell near the centre, designated the Height of 
Land, sej)arates it into two parts, one descending north- 
ward to the Arctic Ocean, the other southward to the 
Gulf. This swell which connects the Atlantic with the 
Pacific highlands, is from 1,000 to 2,000 feet above the 
level of the sea. The Central Plain is formed by the 
long, gentle slope descending eastward from the base 
of the Rocky Mountains. 



242 GEOGRAPHY. 

h. On the South their intersection is marked by the 
position of the Mississippi Eiver. On the North a broad 
low swell, approximately parallel with the Eocky Mount- 
ains, extends from Lake Superior to the Arctic Shores, 
separating the jSTorthern plain into two vast basins. 

c. The Western basin, which is narrow and elongated^ 
is connected with the Eastern by a break in the divid- 
ing swell, through which the Nelson River flows to Hud- 
son Bay. The Eastern basin, which is more expanded, 
is partly below the level of the sea and covered by the 
waters of the Hudson Bay. 

d. A series of remarkable depressions, occupied by 
the great lakes of the Mackenzie and Saskatchewan 
river systems, — Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca and 
Winnepeg — marks the intersection of the northern swell 
with the slope from the Rocky Mountains. 

e. On the Height of Land, near its junction with 
the northern swell, are three vast depressions, diverging. 
from a common centre, with a depth reaching consider- 
ably below the level of the sea. These are filled by the 
waters of the great lakes — Superior, Michigan, and 
Huron. 

Similar, though less extensive, basins in the St. Law- 
rence valley are occupied by lakes Erie and Ontario. 

/. The Central Plain consists of two immense slopes,. 
— the Northern being the Arctic Plain, the Southern 
the Mississippi Valley. 

g. The Mississippi Valley occupies one-half of the en- 
tire area of the United States. The surface is undulat- 
ing; parts are hilly; on the whole, the surface is that 
of a plain, with slopes toward the centre from off the 



STUDY OF FORTH AMERICA. 243^ 

two highland regions and a general slope from the 
height of land Southward to the Gulf of Mexico. 

h. The Plains. — The name of the Plains is given to a 
section of the country extending a considerable distance 
to the Eastward of the Eocky Mountains. It may be 
called a sloping plateau; there is no well defined limit 
at which the name of plateau must be exchanged for 
that of a plain. 

4. The Pacific Slope extends from the crest of the 
Sierra Nevada and the Cascade Eanges west- Pacific 
ward to the Pacific Ocean. Its average ®^^p^- 
width is about 150 miles. Between these ranges and 
some lower elevations along the coast is enclosed the 
great California Valley. 

5. The Atlantic Slope extends from the Alleghany 
Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean. It varies Atlantic 

in width according as the mountains ap- ^^°^®' 
proach or recede from the sea coast. Upon the New 
England coast of the United States it is about 50 mile& 
in width; at the mouth of the Hudson River, it varies 
to a mere strip of coast; it broadens southward to a 
width of 300 miles. 

The teacher should take up the rivers, lakes, climate, 
etc., as the next subject in order for study, based upon 
the following order, viz. : 

X. Rivers. 

1. Classification by river-systems. 

2. Description of particular rivers. 

a. Length and size. 

b. Availability for navigation, 

c. Availability for water-power. 

3. (Rivers of the particular locality.) 



244 GEOGRAPHY. 

XI. Lakes. 

1. Description. 

2. Uses. 

a. As yielding fish. 

b. For navigation. 

XII. Climate. 

1. As determined by latitude. 

2. As modified by particular causes, — altitude, proximity to the 
sea or the great lakes, winds, etc. 

3. (At the home of the pupil, — local geography.) 

XII. Natural Advantages. 

1. (At the home of the pupil, — local geography.) 

2. On the surface of the earth. 

a. Nature of the soil with reference to agriculture. 

b. Forests, — nature and uses of the woods. 

c. Facilities for transportation afforded by the sea, rivers, 
lakes, etc. 

3. Within the earth. 

a. Useful minerals and metals — as coal, building material, 
iron, copper, lead, etc. 

b. Precious metals, — as gold and silver. 

4. In the waters. 

a. Sea fisheries. 

b. Lake and river fisheries. 

XIV. Industries, or Occupations. 

1. Agriculture. 

a. Relative importance among the industries of the State. 

b. The crops raised. 

c. Statistics of crops. 

d. Cattle, sheep and hog raising. 

2. Manufacturing. 

a. Relative importance. 

b. Articles produced. 

c. Statistics of manufactures. 



BLACKBOARD TABULATIONS. 245 

3. Mining. 

a. Metals or minerals found. 

h. Mines, to what extent worked. 

4. Lumbering. 

a. Locality of the forests. 
h. Description of the method. 

5. The Fisheries. 

a. Locality of the fisheries. 
h. Kinds of fish taken. 

6. Commerce. 

a. What is exported. 
&. What is imported, 
c. Means of transportation. 

XV. Internal Improvements. • 

1. Railroads. 

a. Local lailroads, 
h. Trunk-lines. 

2. Canals. 

3. Navigation on lakes and rivers. 

After this subject has been taught objectively and 
fully illustrated, it should be tabulated on the board 
and the pupils be required to recite topically. 

They should name every important item connected 
with the relief, and the teacher should require compo- 
sitions in which the tabulation is used as an outline. 

It is expected that after the subject is taught object- 
ively all the divisions will be tabulated in a similar 
manner. 



In early editions we gave a special treatment of the geogra- 
phy of the State of New York This we now discontinue, as 
something similar is given in the State editions of most modern 
geographies. 

Those who desire specimens of the treatment of local geogra- 
phy, can obtain for 25 cents each Bardeen's " Geography of On- 



246 GEOGRAPHY. 

ondaga County," or Northam's "Geography of Lewis County," 
and of "Oneida County," all of New York. Similar pamphlets 
have been prepared in other sections of the country. For general 
study we recommend Griffin's " Topical Geography, with Meth- 
ods and Supplementary Notes," 50 cts. More elaborate treatises 
are Parker's " How to Study Geography, "$1.50, and Frye's " The 
Child and Nature, or Geography with Sand Modelling," $1.00. 



PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 



The special province of Physical Geography is the in- 
vestigation of Climate and its modifications. 

The great agents are the air, rain, frosts, springs, 
brooks, rivers, glaciers, icebergs, mountains, and the 
sea. 

It is Climate, and Climate alone, that determines 
mainly the character of all vegetable and animal life. 

Climatic agents not only are now the most important 
and influential, but they have been so during all past 
geological ages. To account for all of the extraordinary 
changes of Climate would require many volumes, but 
I have studiously avoided introducing theories of a hy- 
pothetical nature. 

The conclusions are in every case derived either from 
facts or from recognized principles. 

The student should never rest until he gets at the 
reasons for what he sees about him. He should know 
something about the air he breathes, and the earth he 
lives upon, and about the relations between them. It 
is this great book of Nature, wherein each of us, young 
and old, may read, and go on reading all through life, 
without exhausting even a small part of what it has to 
teach us. It is that great look — Air, Earth, and 8ea — 
which I would have you study. 

(247 



248 



PHYSICAL GEOGEAPHY. 



I. ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE. 

By climate we mean the temperature, the moisture 
of the air, the prevailing winds, and their results. 

Heat comes from the rays of the sun, which give the 
most heat when they fall the most directly upon any 
part of the earth, and the least when they fall the most 
obliquely. 

When we speak of the heat or the cold of the air, we 

Temperature, ^^se the word Temperature. When the air 

is hot, the temperature is said to be high. 

When the air is cold, the temperature is said to be low. 

The temperature is warmer at noon than in the 
morning or evening because at morning and at evening 
the rays of the sun fall in a slanting direction, and we 
receive comparatively few of the rays, because they are 
spread over a great surface. 

At noon when the sun is more or less directly upon 
us, then we receive more of them because they fall upon 
a comparatively small space, as will be seen from the 
following figure: 




OBLIQUE RA.YS OF THE SUN. 249 

Eays falling directly from overhead are said to be 
vertical] those falling in a slanting direction are said to 
be ohlique. 

This diagram put on the black-board will bring the 
matter home to the pnpiFs comprehension, oblique 
The vertical sheaf of rays, striking the earth ^^^^' 
at noon, falls upon a small surface. In the middle of 
the forenoon or afternoon, the rays, falling obliquely 
are spread over a greater surface. At sunrise or sunset 
no part of the sheaf touches the earth^'s surface except 
its lower side, and most of the rays are lost in the at- 
mosphere beyond. Tell the pupils that the sun always 
shines vertically, or nearly so, on the equator, and on a 
considerable belt beyond the equator on either side. 
Now, just as the sunbeams fall more directly at noon 
than in the morning or evening, so they fall more di- 
rectly during the summer season than during the winter 
season. 

In our country the sun centre is never directly over- 
head, and its rays fall upon us in the most nearly verti- 
cal direction on the longest summer day. 

First Important Fact. — Temperature — that is, the 
heat or cold of a place — is one element of climate. 

In some countries immense quantities of rain fall: in 
others none, or next to none. In the rain- 
less districts the climate is dry; where much 
rain falls the climate is luet or damp. 

When we speak of a wet or dry climate, we use the 
word humidity, or moisture. 

Second Important Fact, — Humidity is another ele- 
ment of climate. 
Q 



250 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Prevailing Third Important Fact. — The prevailing 

winds. winds form an element of climate. 

The three elements of climate then are Temperature, 
Humidity, and Prevailing Winds. 

A climate that is neither too hot nor too cold is called 
temperate. When it is very hot or very cold it is said to 
be extreme. 

A climate that is in every way fine and agreeable is 
called genial or salubrious. 

Three elements are included in climate : 
1. Temperature — that is, the heat or cold. 

2. Humidity, or the state of being wet or dry. 

3. T\\Q prevailing winds. 

(a). A temperate climate means one that is neither 
too hot nor too cold. 

(b). An extreme climate means one that is very hot 
or very cold. 

(c). A. genial or salubrious climate means one that is 
in every way fine and agreeable, favorable to health. 

These facts should be written on the board, and the 
pupils should be required to copy and commit them to 
memory. 

II. THE GENERAL LAW. 
How can we tell what variety of climate any coun- 
try has? What must we know before we can tell? 

Note. — Before this division of the subject is taken 
up, a lesson should be given on the shape or form of the 
earth, lines upon the earth^s surface, etc. 

We have learned that the earth in its motion, like a 
wheel, revolves around an imaginary line 

Latitude. n i 'j 

called its axis. 



THE GEN'ERAL LAW. 251 

The most northern point of the earth's surface is 
called the North Pole, and the most southern point the 
South Pole. 

There is an imaginary line called the Equator, drawn 
at an equal distance from each pole, and dividing the 
€arth-surface into equal parts. 

The countries where the sun shines directly overhead, 
or perpendicularly, are those that are near this line — 
the equator — (use a globe if you have one, or at least a 
map; place a diagram on the board, illustrate fully). 

Here, 23^° north of the equator, is another line, 
called the Tropic of Cancer, and 23|-° south of the 
equator is the Tropic of Capricorn. 

Any country lying anywhere between the tropics is 
called intertropical. And since these countries have 
the sun directly overhead at certain seasons, and nearly 
so at all other seasons, they will have a hot climate. 
Then as we go nearer to the poles it becomes colder, till 
at last, at the polar regions, we find only ice and snow. 
We learn from these facts that the heat throughout the 
year is greatest at or near the equator, and diminishes 
gradually toward the poles. Thus we see that the 
climate of a place depends upon the latitude of the 
place. The latitude of a place is, therefore, of the first 
importance in determining its temperature, since a 
decrease of heat takes place with an increase of latitude 
as we travel, at the same level above the sea, from the 
equator toward the poles. 

So it will be seen that latitude islthe fundamental 
element in climate, and influences all the others. 

At the equator, and within the tropics, the greatest 
heat is experienced, because the sun is always vertical 



252 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

to some place within those limits, and the solar action 
is more intense in proportion as the rays are vertical to 
the earth. See figure, page 248. 

As we recede from the equator the rays fall more 
obliquely; and, because fewer of them are spread over a 
larger space, they are less powerful, and consequently 
have less influence on temperature. 

It has been calculated that out of 10,000 rays falling 
upon the earth atmosphere, 8,123 arrive at a given point 
if they fall vertically; 7,024 if the angle of direction is 
50°; 2,821, if it is 7°; and only 5 if the direction is hor- 
izontal. 

As will be seen, the amount of heat produced by the 
sun upon the earth's surface is greatest near the equator, 
and diminishes gradually toward the poles, and these 
causes are referable to the spherical form of the 
earth, and the angle at which the sun's rays impinge 
upon the surface. 

In the equatorial regions they are vertical to the sur- 
face of the earth, and there produce maximum effect; 
but on account of the curved outline of the globe, they 
fall more and more obliquely with increasing latitude, 
and the intensity of action diminishes proportionately. 
At the poles they are tangent to the surface, and their 
effect is zero. 

From these facts we may deduce the following: 

General Law. — The climate of a place depends prin- 
cipally on its latitude. 

MODIFICATIONS OF THE GENERAL LAW. 

When we ascend mountains, the air becomes cool, 
cooler, cold, colder, till finally we find our- 
^^^ ■ selves amid snows that last all the year 

around. 



MODIFICATIONS OF THE GENERAL LAW. 253 

We may travel several hundred miles from the equa- 
tor toward the poles, along the level surface of the earth, 
before we become sensible of a diminished temperature; 
but when we ascend the mountains between the tropics, 
when we begin to increase our elevation a rapid change 
of temperature is experienced, and those places that are 
elevated will be colder than those at the level of the sea. 

On an average, an increase of 300 feet altitude dimin- 
ishes the temperature 1° Fahr. ; hence, the rate of 
■diminution is about 3° to 1000 feet. 

In large plateaus, hov/ever, the effect of altitude seems 
to be, in some measure, intensified by the great extent 
of absorbing and radiating surface uplifted into the 
atmosphere. In general they are considerably warmer 
than the isolated summits of mountains of the same 
a,ltrtude. 

From this effect of elevation upon temperature, it is 
obvious that the mountain regions of the torrid zone 
have great varieties of climate. 

In this region we may find vines at the base of the 
mountain. The region of vines rises from the level of 
the sea to a certain height; in this zone of vegetation 
may be found the date-tree, the sugar-cane, the fig, and 
the olive; next come the hardy species of trees, as the 
oak, the laurel; higher, the birch, the pine, and the firs; 
higher still may be found the grasses; and, beyond, a 
few plants and lichens; and, still beyond, the vegetation 
ceases entirely, and we have reached the line of perpetual 
snow. 

Note. — Illustrate the zones of vegetation by a diagram 
at the board, using colored chalk. 



254 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

From these facts we gather that the temperature of a 
place depends not on its latitude alone, but on its eleva- 
tion^ or, as it is called, its altitude. 

The lower and denser strata of the atmosphere absorb 
the greatest amount of the sun^s heat, and are necessarily 
the warmest; the atmosphere is not much heated by the 
direct rays of the sun, but receives heat mainly by 
radiation from the earth^s surface. 

First Modification. — The altitude of a place modifies 
the climate. 

Mountains also modify the climate of large areas of 
lower lands in their vicinity. Their elevation 

Mountains. . , , ,-, • , , i • 

intercepts the moist currents approaching 
from the oceans, and their cold summits condense the 
moisture, causing it to be preci]3itated. 

Consequently, the winds, on leaving the mountains 
for the interior, are dry, and give the characteristics of 
dryness to the climate of the interior areas. This modi- 
fication is well illustrated in our own country by the 
climate of our Western Plains, which are influenced in 
their climatic conditions by the high, cold wall of the 
Eocky Mountains. 

The valleys west of this range have abundant rain- 
fall, and, consequently, rich fertility, while those to the 
east have almost perpetual drouth, and consequently 
sterility. 

Therefore, another modification of climate is the prox- 
imity of mountain ranges. 

Second Modification. — The proximity of mountain 
ranges modifies the climate. 



MOUNTAINS AND WINDS. 255 

Heat causes winds. Winds are motions of parts of 
the atmosphere; warmer portions expand, 
become lighter, rise, and their places are 
filled by cold air. 

Hence, tropical heat causes an ascending, warm, cur- 
rent of air at the equator. The heavy cold air from the 
poles, flowing toward the equator, causes Trade Winds 
on each side of the equator. 

Ascending air cools, contracts, and descends to the 
surface beyond the tropics, meets the polar currents, 
and forms the return currents. 

The motion of the earth causes the polar and return 
currents to be turned from their northern or southern 
direction, and they take a northeastern or southwestern 
course. 

The character of the wind depends upon the region 
whence it comes. Winds from the equatorial regions 
carry into the middle latitudes some portion of the heat 
of the tropical regions; while polar winds bring the low 
temperature of the latitudes whence they come. 

If there is nothing to break the force of the icy winds 
coming from the Arctic region, we may expect the 
country to be cold even if it is pretty far south; on the 
other hand, if there is nothing to break the force of the 
hot winds coming from the torrid region, we may expect 
the country to be warm, even if it is prett}'^ far north. 

In the United States the winds from the north are 
usually noted for their coolness, a property they derive 
from the frozen regions of Hudson^s and Baffin's Bay, 
while those from the south, coming from the Gulf of 
Mexico, impart a mildness throughout the whole coun- 
try. 



256 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

The comparatively mild climate of the British Isles 
is owing to the prevalence of main currents of air which 
are warmed by sweeping over the Gulf Stream. 

In the same latitude the shores of Greenland and Lab- 
rador are washed by the icy waters of the Arctic cur- 
rents and swept by the polar winds. 

The one region has a mild climate, and is occupied 
by the most enlightened nations of the world; the other 
is a frozen waste, sparsely inhabited by degraded say- 
ages and European traders. 

We gather from these facts that the climate of a place 
depends not alone on its latitude, altitude, or proxim- 
ity to mountain ranges, but on the character of the 
winds. 

Third Modification. — The prevailing winds at a given 
place modify the climate. 

Oceanic climate is characterized by uniformity. 
Water has a great capacity for absorbing 
heat, and but feeble conducting power; 
hence, the ocean grows warm slowly under the rays of 
the sun, and never attains a high temperature. It also 
radiates heat slowly, and as fast as the surface particles 
become cool, they sink and are replaced by warmer ones 
from beneath; hence the cooling process is as gradual 
as the heating, and neither produces extremes of tem- 
perature. 

The ocean retains the heat longer than the land. In 
the summer the land is warmer than the sea, and in the 
winter the land is cooler than the sea. 

Note. — This is a general statement, and does not refer to daily 
variation of temperature. 



THE OCEAN. 257 

The air from the ocean moderates the heat of summer 
and cold of winter. So the coasts have a more equable 
temperature than the interior. 

The land absorbs the solar heat rapidly, and the sur- 
face soon attains a high temperature. Especially is this 
the case when the soil is imperfectly covered with vege- 
tation, as in treeless plains or deserts. 

But, when the sun is withdrawn, heat radiates with 
rapidity, and a comparatively low temperature is soon 
reached. It is seen that the ocean preserves a much 
more uniform temperature than the land, hence islands 
and maritime districts have milder climates than inland 
regions under the same parallels of latitude. London, 
though situated in a higher latitude, enjoys a milder 
climate than Paris. The Avinters and summers of Ire- 
land are much more temperate than those of any other 
country in the same latitude. 

Let us take an example in Nature, and see what 
passes on an island alone in the midst of the ocean. 
Let us remember that the land is heated more readily 
than the sea. In proportion as the sun rises above the 
horizon, the island becomes warmer than the neighbor- 
ing sea. 

Their respective atmospheres participate in these un- 
equal temperatures; the fresh air of the sea rushes from 
all directions under the form of a sea-hreeze, which 
makes itself felt along the whole coast, and the warmer 
and lighter air of the island will ascend into the atmos- 
phere. 

During the night it is the reverse. The island loses 
heat by radiation, and cools quicker than the sea. 



258 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

Its atmosphere, having become heavier, runs into 
that of the sea, under the form of land-breeze, and this 
interchange lasts until the temperature, and conse- 
quently the density of the two atmospheres has again 
become the same. 

This is the phenomenon observed on the eastern coast 
of Georgia, Florida, and almost daily on nearly all the 
seaboards. 

What takes place here on a small scale in the space 
of a day, passes on a great scale between the entire con- 
tinent and the ocean from one season to another. A 
moment's reflection will enable us to see that these dif- 
ferences of temperature, setting the whole atmosphere 
in motion, modify the climate of a place. 

So it is seen that the water of the sea keeps an island 
warm in winter and cool in summer. 

In the centre of the continent the wind in winter 
blows over immense fields of snow or ice, and keeps the 
air cold; and in the summer it blows across the heated 
land, and the air must be very warm; the countries in 
the centre of a continent have an extreme climate; hence 
the nearness to, or remoteness of a place from the ocean, 
modifies the climate. 

Fourth Modification. — The proximity of a place to, or 
its distance from, the ocean modifies its climate. 

There are rivers in the ocean called ocean-currents. 
Ocean cur- They consist of vast oceanic streams which 
rents. keep up a perpetual circulation of the waters. 

Some of them have been traced many thousand miles. 
All the rivers in the world are insignificant when com- 
pared with some of these currents. 



OCEAN CURRENTS. 259 

They move on steadily through the water compara- 
tively at rest, and are often different from the latter in 
color and temperature. Some are hundreds of miles 
broad, thousands of feet deep, and have a course em- 
bracing the larger part of the ocean in which they 
move. 

Currents exist not only at the surface, but in deep 
waters, where their course is frequently in a different 
direction from, sometimes even opposite to that of the 
surface-currents. 

The direction and velocity of currents are modified: 
1. By the revolution of the earth on its axis; 2. By the 
constant winds of the Torrid Zone; 3. By being turned 
aside by the shores. 

The expansion and contraction of water by heat and 
cold are, perhaps, the principal causes to which currents 
are due. Heat causes water to become warm; warm 
water is lighter than cold, and when certain portions 
become heated, they rise by reason of their buoyancy, 
and are replaced by surrounding colder and heavier 
water flowing at the same time toward the equator. 
The ocean currents assist to cool the tropical and to 
warm the polar regions. 

Evaporation by solar heat causes large quantities of 
water to pass off in vapor; and it is this excessive evap- 
oration within the tropics which tends to lower the 
level of the water there. 

The revolution of the earth round its axis is still 
another powerful cause in producing currents, particu- 
larly those of the equatorial regions, which have com- 
monly a western direction. 



260 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

The winds of tropical climates, whicli blow continu- 
ously or during long periods in one direction, also lend 
their influence in affecting the currents. 

The effect of the rise and fall of tides in producing 
an alternate flowing of currents in opposite directions is 
perceived in channels between islands, or between islands 
and the mainland. 

Thus, in the channel which connects Long Island 
Sound with the harbor of New York, known as the East 
Eiver, strong currents alternately prevail in opposite 
directions, as the tide ebbs and flows. 

The Gulf Stream, which first becomes apparent near 
the northeast coast of Cuba, has a great influence on 
climate. The Gulf Stream, as it issues from the straits 
of Florida, is of dark indigo-blue, so strongly contrast- 
ing with the greenish color of the sea that the line of 
contact is distinctly traceable by the eye. Near its ori- 
gin this remarkable current has a breadth of 32 miles 
and a depth of more than 2,000 feet; off Cape Hatteras 
the breath is at least 75 miles, and the depth more than 
700 feet. 

The temperature at its origin is about 80° Fahr. ; on 
an average it is from 20° to 38° warmer than the adja- 
cent water. 

The comparatively high temperature of this great 
stream modifies the climate of the eastern coast of North 
America; and as it sweeps across the Atlantic Ocean, 
in its northeast coast to the British Isles and Norway, 
it modifies the climate of those countries. It will be 
seen, by a study of the ocean-currents , that the polar 
currents and the return currents bring heat to the 
western shores, and that they produce contrasts in tem- 



EAIN-FALL. 261 

perature in the same latitude on opposite shores of con-, 
tinents. We gather from these facts that the ocean 
currents modify the climate of a country. 

Fifth Modification. — Ocean-currents modify the cli- 
mate of a place. 

The annual quantity of rain that falls in a place con-, 
siderably affects its climate, by imparting a 

4. 1 1 ^\. -A-^ ^ Rain-fall. 

greater or less degree of humidity or damp- 
ness of the atmosphere. In general more rain falls on, 
islands and on sea coasts than in inland districts; among 
mountains than in level regions; and within the tropics 
than in the other zones. 

Heat and winds produce rains. Heat causes evapora- 
tion; the vapors rise in the air; air at a given tempera- 
ture has a certain capacity for moisture; when this limit 
is reached the air is said to be saturated with humidity, 
and the least lowering of the temperature causes a con- 
densation of moisture in the form of dew, fog, clouds, or 
rain; but, if the temperature is raised, the capacity for 
vapor being increased, absorption recommences. 

As long as the amount of vapor present in the air is 
much less than is required for saturation, evaporation 
goes on rapidly, and the air continues to absorb the ris- 
ing vapors. It is, therefore, called dry air. When the. 
air is nearly saturated evaporation proceeds but very 
slowly; when saturation is reached evaporation ceases, 
and the air is moist or humid. 

Visible masses of vapor resting on or near the ground; 
are called fogs, while those floating in the air at a con- 
siderable height are distinguished as clouds. 

Condensation and rain are mostly caused by the cool- 
ing of currents of warm air laden with aqueous vapors. 



262 PHYSICAL GEOGEAPHY. 

Cold causes condensation; the vapors condensed fall as 
rain; hence rain is caused by the cooling of air laden 
with moisture. The temperature of tropical winds ad- 
vancing into cooler latitudes is lowered, the moisture is 
then condensed, and the rain falls. Cold winds, if sat- 
urated, advancing into warmer latitudes become ex- 
panded, and their capacity for moisture is increased; 
they become less humid, the clouds dissolve, and the air 
becomes clear and dry. 

Winds blowing over plains retain their moisture, but 
if they strike a mountain they become cooled, and the 
rain falls. Plateaus usually receive less rain than other 
forms of relief, because the mountains, which form the 
borders of the greater number, prevent the vaj)ors borne 
by the winds from reaching them. 

From these facts we see that the annual amount of 
rain modifies the climate of a place. 

Sixth Modificatio7i. — The annual quantity of rain 
modifies the climate of a place. 

The nature and covering of the soil have an influence 
upon the condensation of the vapor in the 
air. A region with nothing to shield it from 
the burning rays of the sun becomes intensely heated, 
and imparts to the superincumbent air a temperature 
so high as to dissipate all clouds which may float into 
it from the surrounding atmosphere. A covering of 
vegetation, on the contrary, shields the soil from the 
sun's rays, keeps its temperature lower, and promotes 
condensation. And whether a region be bare or covered 
with vegetation greatly affects its climate. From these 
facts we see that the nature and covering of the earth 
have an influence upon climate. 



SOIL, FORESTS, VEGETATIOiq". 263 

Seventh Modification. — The nature and covering of 
the soil modify the climate of a place. 

The clearing of forests, the draining of swamps and 
marshes, the cultivation of the soil, etc., are 
among the operations of man by which the 
climate of a country is greatly modified and improved. 

Clearing a country of trees has the effect of raising 
the mean annual temperature, but at the same time 
introduces greater extremes of heat and cold. Open 
grounds are always frozen deeper than woodlands, but 
the latter retain the snow and ice of winter to a much 
later period in the spring than the former. 

From these facts we see that the cultivation of a place 
modifies its climate. 

Eighth Modification. — The degree of cultivation and 
improvement modifies the climate of a place. 

Both the moisture and salubrity of a region are influ- 
enced by its vegetation. 

The leaves of trees and plants give forth ^^^ ^ ^'^^' 
moisture to the atmosphere, and take from it its carbonic 
acid; hence the forests receive more rain than treeless 
regions similarly situated, while at the same time they 
check the evaporation of moisture from the soil; thus 
they equalize the irrigation of the surrounding country 
and augment the volume of its springs and rivers; hence 
forests effect an important modification of climate. 

Salubrity or the health condition depends greatly on 
the general character of the surface, as to evenness or 
unevenness. When the areas are even or flat the waters 
spread over larger surfaces, become stagnant, and are 
charged with decaying animal and vegetable matter. 



264 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 

The adjacent atmosphere receives foul emanations 
from these unwholesome waters^ and the region is thus 
rendered insalubrious and unhealthful. Where, on the 
contrary, the surface is uneven or broken, the waters 
collect into narrower currents and move with consider- 
able velocity, carrying away decaying substances, cleans- 
ing the region, and rendering its climate more and more 
wholesome. 

Hence an important modification in a region results 
from its evenness or unevenness of surface. 

Ninth Modification. — The evenness or unevenness of 
the surface modifies the climate of a place. 

Kecapitulatioj^. 

First Important Fact. — Temperature — that is, the 
heat or cold of a place — is an element of 

Elements. t , 

climate. 
Second Important Fact. — Humidity — that is, whether 
it is wet or dry — is an element of climate. 

Third Important Fact. — The prevailing winds are an 
element of climate. 

General Laio. — The climate of a place de- 

Generallaw. -, . . ,, ., , ,., , 

pends principally on its latitude. 

First Modification. — The altitude of the 

Modifications. ^ ^.^ ,, ,. . 

place modifies the climate. 

Second Modification. — The proximity of i;i[iountain 
ranges modifies the climate. 

Third Modification. — The prevailing winds modify 
the climate. 

Fourth Modification. — The proximity of a place to, 
or its distance from, the ocean, modifies the climate. 



KECAPITULATIOlSr. 265 

Fifth Modification. — Ocean currents modify the cli- 
mate of a place. 

Sixth Modificatio7i. — The annual quantity of rain 
modifies the climate of the place. 

Seventh Modification. — The nature and covering of 
the soil modify the climate of a place. 

Eighth Modification. — The degree of cultivation and 
improvement modifies the climate of a place. 

Ninth Modification. — The evenness or unevenness of 
the surface modifies the climate of a place. 

1. A temperate climate means one that is gin^gof 
neither too hot nor too cold. climate. 

2. An extreme climate means one that is either too 
hot or too cold. 

3. A genial or salubrious climate means one that is in 
every way agreeable, favorable to health. 

The condition of a country in regard to temper- 
ature, moisture, and the prevailing- winds, is 

! -* r & ^ Definition. 

its climate. 



R 



HISTORY. 



The facts of history comprise the sum of the events 
that man has brought about in all the teeming centuries 
since first he inhabited the earth. The number is be- 
yond the power of imagination to conceive, and histo- 
rians do not attempt to enumerate them. They des- 
cribe some of the grandest and most interesting features 
of a nation^s life, and leave the rest to be inferred or 
forgotten. 

History describes the past conditions and actions of 
Keep facts men, and investigates the causes which have 
in perspective, operated to produce them. History should 
be taught from a series of progressive standpoints. 

In the history of every nation there are certain prom- 
inent events from which as centres other minor events 
have seemed to emanate, and to which they bear refer- 
ence. It is only of these great events that we need to 
know the dates or the minute particulars. It is a use- 
less waste of time and labor to commit to memory a 
great number of dates to be speedily forgotten. Only 
such dates should be committed to memory as are indis- 
pensable as land marks in history. The sequence of 
events, rather than the precise date of each, is what is 
chiefly necessary. 

The teaching that goes under this name in schools is 
Useless generally a farce. It consists usually in 

teaching. stringing together the names and dates with 
a few facts of the least important kind. Or, if more is 

(266) 



IIS'FLUENCE OF HISTORY. 267 

attempted, it is reading in a text-book; in which case 
generally there is little within a child's sympathy or 
comprehension, and together are often jumbled, with- 
out purpose or method, facts of the most diverse kind, 
from which it is impossible to gain a clear conception 
of any of its elements. When such an array of facts is 
given as a whole to a child, it can produce nothing but 
embarrassment. 

A knowledge of the history of their own country is 
about all that can be expected of pupils in our own 
our common schools, but in the higher country first, 
schools it should be extended to universal history. 

No one can well do without this knowledge, and to 
the citizen it seems indispensable. The law should re- 
quire the history of the United States to be taught in 
every school. 

History presents many examples of good and great 
men and women who honored by their noble Moral 
deeds the age and country in which they i"^^®^*'®- 
lived. 

Moral examples have more influence upon the young 
than moral precepts. The heart is more easily moved 
to virtue by incidental teaching than by direct teaching. 

The great deeds of the past have been done by beings 
like themselves, whom they enjoy learning about. 

The history of such men as Washington, Franklin, 
Lincoln, and scores of others, proves an incentive to 
youth, and the moral seeds sown in open hearts germi- 
nate and eventually produce rich fruit. 

The reason why pupils take so little interest in the 
study of history is principally on account of Topical 
the fragmentary manner in which the subject ^^'^^t*"®^*- 



268 HISTORY. 

is presented in our text-books. Lessons in history- 
should be assigned by topics, and not by pages. All 
verbatim recitations of sentences and paragraphs should 
be forbidden, and pupils should be required to state the 
facts in their own language. 

History should be taught as a methodical record of 
Essentiaito important events. To every American citi- 
citizenship. ^^^^ some knowledge of the history of his 
own country is useful; he should know of the founding, 
progress, and growth of liberty in his own country. To- 
wards the preservation of good government and the per- 
manency of our institutions, it is necessary that the 
principles of government and the leading events of his- 
tory be taught in our American schools. 

The idea of national unity and of patriotism should 
rise above the stripes of party and the turmoils of war, 
and plant itself as the one thing vital to American in- 
stitutions. That the subject of history may secure 
attention from the teacher, and study from the pupils, 
is the sincere wish of every loyal American citizen. 

GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 

1. Interest the pupils by a familiar talk. 

2. Examine the lessons with the pupils. 

3. Draw maps and locate important places. 

4. Let the maps be examined and criticised. 

5. Bring out the prominent, salient facts, with clear- 
ness. 

6. Require pupils to classify and tabulate the lesson^ 
and recite from the tabulation. 

7. Do not require too many dates. 

8. Let the pupils state the causes of the different wars 
and their effects. 



A MODEL LESSON". 269 

9. Teach history as a methodical record of important 
events. 

10. An objective representation should be given by 
means of maps and charts; drawings and diagrams 
should be placed on the board of all important matters 
in the history of the nation. 

A Model Lesson. 
Important Questions, 

1. What event? 6. What persons? 

2. What causes? 7. What means? 

3. What battle? 8. What losses? 

4. What time? 9. What results? 

5. What place? 

Taking these questions for the model form, we have 
the following lesson: History of the Battle of Bimker 
Hill 

1. What event? Revolutionary War. 

fl. Rights of arbitrary go vern- 
j ment claimed by the Brit- 

f 1, Remote. ■{ ish. 

j I 2. Character of the King, 

3. What causes? \ ^ ^^""'^^ "^• 



9 DirPPf i 1- Importation Act. 
^. Lurect. -j ^ g^^^p ^^^ 



3. What battle? Bunker Hill. 

4. What time? 1775, June 17. 

5. What place? Breed's Hill. 






General Ward. 



6. What persons? ■{ 



American J {h) General Prescott. 
Generals, j (c) General Putnam. 
t {d) General Warren. 

[ {a) General Gage. 
British J (b) General Howe. 
Generals. 1 {c) General Clinton. 

^ Id) General Burgoyne. 



270 HISTORY. 



1. American— 115 killed, 305 wounded and 
8. What losses? -j 32 prisoners. 

( 3. British — 1054 killed and wounded. 

Remote — Gaining our 



ri. American. < Independence. 

I [3. Direct — Encouraging. 

9. What results? ■{ 

I 9 -R-ujoi, ( 1. Remote — Defeat. 

I '^- ^^"^s^- )2. Direct— Discouraging. 

This model form may apply to a period of our coun- 
try's history, or to a battle of that period. 

Associate, as far as possible, geography with history. 

The review should take three distinct forms, chrono- 
logical, biographical, and geographical. In 
the chronological, the pupil should state all 
of the principal dates; in the biographical all that has 
been learned in regard to particular individuals; and in 
the geographical, whatever he can state of all impor- 
tant facts relating to the history of a locality. 

These reviews may be made spirited exercises, by re- 
questing the class to write a few of the essential dates, 
the sequence of important events, the names of impor- 
tant individuals. The system of the reviews above sug- 
gested, must, if faithfully carried out, result in a 
tliorough unifying of the general subject of history. 

Many of the facts of history may be given in reading, 
Incidental ^^^ especially in geography lessons. Such 
lessons. facts embrace pictures of social condition, 

growth of manufactures and of populous districts, actions 
that have made particular places celebrated, and inci- 
dents in the lives of remarkable men. Through these 
the mind, furnished with some of the material of his- 



TOPICAL TEACHING. 271 

tory, may pursue with more advantage to itself its syste- 
matic study. 

Lessons on any subject are thus more adhesive than 
when given to a mind entirely ignorant of it. 

United States history may be taught in a way to make 
it of very little use. To memorize a dry 

^^1 ^ o Tin m i i • Expedients. 

narrative will be of little avail except to in- 
spire disgust with history in general. But all modern 
text-rules accept the topical method of arrangement, 
at least in their summaries, and Northam's ^' Helps in 
Fixing the Leading Facts of American History/' makes 
this topical review practicable in every school. 

Here all facts are 1775. L — exington. 
presented in groups. 1776. I — ndependence. 
The key-word to the 1777. B — urgoyne's Surrender. 
Revolution, for in- 1778. E — vacuation. 
stance, is LIBERTY, 1779. R— etribution. 
as shown in the ac- 1780. T — reason, 
companying table of 178L Y — orktown. 
J^ey- Words ; and in like manner the events of the late 
civil war are kept chronologically distinct by the key- 
words SLxWES FREED. Chart No. 1 indicates by 
stars the years in each decade from 1492 to 1789 in 
which the most remarkable events occurred, while the 
colored Chart No. 2 arranges the events under the Con- 
stitution in the following groups: (1) Acquisition of 
Territory, (2) Financial Matters, (3) Tariff, (4) Treaties 
and Compromises, (5) Wars and Rebellions, (6) Impor- 
tant Proclamations, (7) Great Inventions, (8) Slavery, 
(9) Epidemics, (10) Conflagrations, (11) New States, 
(12) Death and Resignations of President and Vice- 
President. 



272 HISTORY. 

In all your teaching the principle of proceeding from 
^, , the knoAvn to the unknown must be followed. 

lYom known 

to unknown. ^ clear picture of the present must be drawn, 
embracing, in their order, all of the above particulars. 
The method, whatever it may be, should quicken the 
pupils' observation, and lead them to see some impor- 
tance in matters of everyday life. Every succeeding 
lesson should bring up vividly the condition of man in 
the past, and compare it, in its several particulars, with 
things now. This will make more and more evident 
how great has been the change, and how much for the 
better. The pupils should see how events, both great 
and small, have contributed to the prosperity and the 
advancement of the people. 

The aim in teaching history should be to inculcate 
those moral lessons which it is the office of 

Aim m view. 

history to teach by example. What, for in- 
stance, could be better adaj^ted to produce a spirit of 
contentment and thankfulness, than a clear knowledge 
of the present condition of our country, with its points 
of superiority over that of other nations? What better 
opportunity can be desired for showing and enforcing 
the necessity of character and skilled industry than is 
afforded while tracing the improvements and the pro- 
gress of our nation for the past one hundred years? 



Among books that will aid in teaching history are "A Thous- 
and Questions in U. S. History," $1.00; Williams's "Topics and 
Eeferences in American History," 50 cts. ; Juliand's "Brief Views 
of U. S. History," 50 cts., and Van Wie's " Outlines in U. 8. His- 
tory," 15 cts. Valuable charts are Blanchard's " Tablet of Amer- 
ican History," $3.00; and Houghton's "Conspectus of U. S. His- 
tory," $5.00. 



OBJECT LESSONS. 



Can the natural sciences be profitably taught to the 
average pupils in our schools? Our first inquiry leads 
us to distinguish between the natural and the artificial 
studies to which the children are introduced. 

The child^s mind is an instrument for acquiring 
rather than using knowledge. He voluntar- Education 
ily begins the study of nature. Here he goes ^y nature. 
to school long before his ^Darents send him. He touches 
with child-hand many forces^, and tries to grasp them. 
His studies are natural, for they are in the order of his 
mental development. Study is play; play is study. The 
objective part of mathematics unfolds to him the shai3es 
and numbers of things. He begins physics with the 
weight of his toy, or watching the ripple and dash of 
brook, or the whirl of the water wheel. He opens 
his botany when he plucks a flower, distinguishing color 
and form. He notices the material of rocks, and gath- 
ers various stones like a zealous mineralogist. 

A child confined as many pupils are to the reading, 
writing, and arithmetic method of discipline, Tg^gj^i^g 
might as well be brought up in a desert as J^^J^^^I^^ ^^ 
in the world of beauty and jDower which sur- 
rounds him. His eyes are gradually closed to a thous- 
and alluring truths; his ears are dulled to the myriad 
voices of nature. It is still true that to a majority of 

(273) 



274 OBJECT LESSONS. 

pupils in the public schools, the acquiring of knowledge 
is uninteresting and positively irksome. 

But right teaching requires that the child's powers of 
Sense knowing accurately should be developed, 

teaching. ^^^^^ hence should begin and largely continue 
with his senses. Words and number, over which so 
much time is spent in reading, spelling, and arithmet- 
ical problems, are valuable to his mental development, 
as they are associated with things really known. Hence 
the elements of science furnish the proper material for 
such study. Knowledge is not power to the child, if it 
is abstract. He cannot use knowledge which lies be- 
yond the sphere of his daily observation and experience. 
What the State needs is intelligent citizens, and intelli- 
gent youth from whom they can be made. These come 
of the power of knowing and judging accurately. We 
claim for the Natural Sciences this effect on the child. 
They deal with facts more sensible than those of arith- 
metic. The parts of a leaf or of a flower are definite, 
easily comprehended, and classified with certainty. This 
is true of the nature and species of the common animals, 
shells and insects, the constituents of a stone, the qual- 
ities of an acid or gas, the history of a rock traced in 
forms of life, the nature and effect even of geological 
changes. 

No wide range of knowledge is required to under- 
Mental stand definitel}^ and surely scientific facts 
training. simply presented to the youthful mind. It 
easily comprehends them as a whole. We claim, there- 
fore, that to whatever degree the reasoning faculties 
should be developed to furnish the child-mind with 
power, this is best secured by its reasoning on facts and 



HABITS OF OBSERVAXION". 275 

things rather than on abstract ideas, to which children's 
studies are often confined. The last knowledge gained 
by man is the correct understanding of human nature, 
of the causes of human actions. The sciences teach the 
relations of cause and effect in their clearest manifesta- 
tions. With enlarged comprehension the child may 
learn the secondary character of causes. He will trace 
their relation to effects with the certainty of conviction 
to his mind. Thence will be imparted the element of 
positiveness to the pupiFs acquirements and habits of 
character. He learns to act unwaveringly on what he 
knows, and to know positively that upon which he acts. 
Correcting by his own observations the conclusions to 
which he is led by the inductive methods of science, 
he gains independence in thought, and, with that, confi- 
dence in his own powers of judging, which are the safe- 
guards of his character and of his rights as a freeman 
under our republican institutions. 

Thus early introduced to the elements of science, the 
foundations of his character as a citizen are Habits of 
more broadly laid. The child becomes more observation, 
inclusive in thought, more inventive through familiar- 
ity with the mechanism of nature, and more appreci- 
ative of the wealth and beauty of his country's resources. 
Taught to observe, he never ceases to be affected by the 
changing lines and hues of nature which his daily vision 
embraces, and the elements of a true aesthetic culture 
find place in him which will add to his certain worth 
and power as a citizen. The old idea that knowledge is 
for discipline is faithfully maintained in our education. 
Yet knowledge is one of the natural desires of the mind. 
The true science of education will make it a pleasure. 



276 OBJECT LESSOKS. 

This will require for the senses larger opportunity than 
they now enjoy. Moreover, we owe to the State and 
its free institutions, to raise the standard of intelligence 
and culture among the people, among mechanics, farm- 
ers, merchants, and laborers in the mill or street. A 
discernment of the true nature and qualities of things 
in their daily use will secure this far better than drills 
in spelling, arithmetic, and grammar. The mass of our 
citizens are not intelligent enough to understand one- 
half the instruction contained in a good weekly news- 
paper. 

We make, therefore, this demand for the sciences — 
Place should fii'st, that they have an equal place with the 
be made. usual studies of primary and grammar and 
district schools; secondly, that our teachers be required 
to make plain the elements of the sciences to pupils be- 
low fourteen years of age, at the expense of rote-drills 
and problems in arithmetic, grammatical analysis, spel- 
ling without definitions, and the time spent in prepar- 
ing for pretentious written examinations, imposed at 
too early an age, that have become one of the worst 
abuses of an artificial system in public work. 

I. WITHOUT APPARATUS. 

But how should these sciences be taught in district 
Methods of schools, or grades below the high school? 
teaching. rpj^^ efforts of authors of elementary text- 
books in science are not entirely successful; most of 
them are still too technical. There is less vividness in 
the statement of the facts of science, less personification 
and idealizing of the study than a child^s apprehension 
demands. The ancients taught their children the forces 



INCIDENTAL TEACHING. 277 

and sounds and shapes of the waters and fields and 
forests, by personfications of nymphs and dryads, gods 
and goddesses, in whose histories and habits they were 
personally interested. So should the stories of insects, 
fishes, mollusks, birds, and well-known animals, or of 
plants and stones, be told without text-books by the 
teacher, with scientific truthfulness as to their modes of 
life and motion. Thus children would become familiar 
with their living forms. With text-books incidental 
still defective, the teacher's opportunity lies ^^^^^^^s- 
in what President Hill calls the incidental method. Let 
her have specimens of minerals, leaves, insects, flowers, 
pictures of birds and animals, and simple apparatus for 
illustrating chemical and physical forces, in order to 
make real to her classes the subjects of the lesson. By 
a hundred well selected stereoscopic pictures she could 
teach physical and political geography as effectively as 
the shapes, circles, and seasons of the earth by a globe. 
Thus the text-book in the hands of a suggestive and 
excursive teacher will become secondary to her personal 
power to make knowledge real and interesting to the 
youngest pupils in her classes. Yet the text-book in 
science will give the study equal dignity with the arith- 
metic in the mind of the scholar, whilst it corrects the 
unscientific or garrulous tendencies of the teacher. 

Moreover, no other studies will so naturally develop 
the personal power of the teacher. Proceed- Enthusiasm 
ing by the method of nature, step by step aroused. 
from the known to the unknown, she will awaken 
enthusiasm in the class, and from the fulness of her 
devotion to the subject there will be an overflow into 
the minds of the pupils. Rote-teaching in these ele- 



^78 OBJECT LESSONS. 

ments of science is utterly defenceless. Every class of 
facts and every principle involved should have illustra- 
tion from the wide range of nature. The living method 
should be employed in the sciences. Every sense and 
power of the child can be grasped and applied to them 
by the live teacher. 

The chief purposes of the object lessons are two: first. 
Object ^^ cultivate habits of careful observation and 

lessons. reflection; and second, to give facility in oral 

description. When properly given they involve the 
systematic discipline of the perceptive faculties and of 
the judgment, of imagination and the memory of facts, 
and in the use of language. 

The method that should be pursued is that known as 
the objective method. This presents two distinct 
though intimately related departments: perceptive teach- 
ing, in which the object, as an acorn, an Qgg, a leaf, or 
a piece of coal, is directly presented to the pupiFs senses; 
and conceptive teaching in which impressions previous- 
ly received are recalled, arranged, and utilized, the ob- 
jects themselves not being presented to the senses during 
the lesson. A lesson upon an oak, an elephant, or a 
thunder storm would fall under the latter department. 
The use of pictures, models, or other sensible represen- 
tations of objects, is an important combination and 
modification of the two departments. 

Definitions should be very sparingly introduced, and 

never in the first stages of a subject. If 

given at all, they should sum up knowledge 

already attained. They should be as brief as possible 

and should be carefully prepared for by a process at once 

inductive and objective. The words organicj inorganic, 



THE VITAL ELEMENT. 279 

vegetahUf animal and mineral, are prominent among the 
very few terms requiring definition. In every stage of 
the lessons, with the exception of a few indispensable 
definitions, the language used by the pupil should be 
entirely his own, and all set forms of words should be 
carefully avoided. '^Familiar objects," and familiar 
animals, plants and minerals should take precedence of 
all others in the selection of toj^ics. 

The process employed will necessarily present two 
distinct stages in accordance with the two 
chief purposes of these lessons already re- 
ferred to. The first may be called the analytic or pre- 
paratory, and furnishes the principal discipline of the 
powers of observation and reflection. In this stage, 
which IS largely conversational, the teacher leads the 
pupils by questions or otherwise to discover or remem- 
ber the properties or peculiarities of an object, or to 
state any other important facts associated with it. The 
points thus considered should be written upon the 
black-board in very brief synoptical form, but each only 
after it has been dwelt upon. 

The vital element in this part of the work, that which 
gives it a living interest to the pupil, is the r^^^ ^.^^^ 
discovery or learning of new facts, or the element. 
gaining of new ideas about the object under consider- 
ation. It is evident that from the nature of the case 
this important element must be chiefly limited to the 
first presentation of the object. Reviews, although for 
certain purposes indispensable, soon become, at least as 
far as this element is concerned, much like '^ a thrice- 
told tale." This makes it all the more important that 
the teacher should have an outline of the lesson care- 



280 OBJECT LESSORS. 

fully prepared beforehand, so as to be sure to include 
the points most likely to be interesting and instructive. 
Any additional point or fact afterwards drawn from the 
class may be readily incorporated. 

It should also be remembered that the effort to 
Small " develop the perceptive powers ^' of children 

classes. -j^^^g ^^g jjjj^j^^ especially when applied to large 

classes. In teaching a little group of four or five, com- 
paratively little difficulty should be found by the skilful 
teacher. But when the class ranges in number from 
forty to sixty in the grammar school, and to seventy- 
five in the primary, and when at the same time owdng 
to the pressure of the other and more directly important 
exercises of a graded school the time given to oral les- 
sons is limited to a very few minutes, it is evident that 
the problem is a different and more formidable one. 

In the first lesson upon any given object or phenome- 
Get answers non, unless great care is taken to prevent it, 
from all. ^ ^^^ pupils of naturally quick perceptions 
will give most of the responses, and the rest of the class 
will be as really '''told "by their classmates as if the 
information had been given by the teacher. 

It is true that in both cases there is an exercise of the 
perceptive faculties; but it is obvious that the mental 
condition in which we follow and verify a statement 
made by another is usually one of far less vigorous and 
profitable activity than that in which we discover a fact 
of ourselves. The former may be called the perception 
of discovery, the latter the perception of verification. 
Nevertheless, from the very nature and condition of 
class-teaching, the lower and the less profitable form of 
the mental exercise will be the predominating one. The 



DEVELOPMENT. 281 

methods of reducing this evil to a practical minimum 
will be obvious to the experienced teacher. It is also 
well for us to consider how large a part of what we call 
our own knowledge has become ours only through veri- 
fying the statements and perceptions of others. 

The processes and results of this first or preparatory 
stage of the work^, important and interesting as they 
may be, are entirely subordinate to the second stage. 
The preparatory stage collects the material for the work 
that is to follow; the lumber, lime, bricks and stone for 
the edifice that is now to be constructed with them. 

Developmen't of a Subject. 

Let us suppose that the subject of our lesson is Salt.. 
The teacher has given the lesson with due points de- 
attention to the requirements of the objective ^eloped. 
method. The qualities, as learned by the senses, the 
kinds, uses, and sources of salt have been considered. 
To these points have been added the chief source of our 
own supply, the singular fact that it is a mineral food, 
its necessity to the health of a body, a brief reference to 
its ancient use as a symbol of hospitality and to certain 
superstitions which still cling to it, together with such 
other simple and interesting facts as seemed appropriate.. 

In that stage of the lesson which we have now reached, 
the chief discipline is of the memory of facts. ^' What 
do you know or remember about salt?" should be the 
teacher's only question, except when an error is made 
in the statement of facts, when a proper question or 
two should lead to its correction, not by the teacher, 
but by the class. The points as written upon the black- 
board in the order in which the pupils remember them 



282 OBJECT LESSOIiTS. 

will be something like the following, omitting the pre- 
fixed numerals, which will presently be explained. 

Salt. 

3. Taste, 9. Springs, 6. Made into Soda, 

4. Seasoning, 10. Ocean, 2. Soluble, 

1. White, 11. Sparkling, 13. Hospitality, 

7. Kinds, 12. Granular, 14. Superstitions. 

8. Mines, 5. Preserves meat and fish. 

The next step is to have the class, not the teacher, 
condense and arrange this miscellaneous list 

Arrangement. . ^ • n i i i 

01 items into a briei and orderly synopsis. 
This is a point of prime importance, but is so simple in 
practice that any ordinary class will need but one illus- 
tration in order to apply the principle. With beginners 
this will be best understood by illustrating with some 
short story — one well-known to jDupils is best. Whit- 
tington and his Cat would do admirably. Write the 
chief points of the legend on the blackboard in brief, 
synoptical form, but in an absurdly illogical order: 

Wliittington— a chest of gold — goes to sea — born in London — 
Mayor — cat given him — dies respected — poor boy, etc., etc. 

If now the teacher will begin to tell the story, follow- 
ing the exact order of the synopsis, the class will soon 
object, and may readily be lead to number the items in 
the order in which they should be stated in telling the 
story. 

A very little practice will enable the class to number 
the items relating to salt sustantially as they are num- 
bered in the synopsis already given. When these are 
arranged according to the principles of object teaching, 
they will condense into — 



LESSOK ON^ SALT. 283 

Salt. 

1. Qualities — 3 : White ; soluble ; saline taste. 

2. Kinds— 3 : Rock ; bay ; table. 

3. Uses — 3 : Seasoning ; preserving meat, etc. ; soda. 

4. Sources — 3 : Mines ; springs ; ocean. 

5. Associations— 2 : Hospitality ; superstitions. 

In making up a final synopsis such as this, great care 
should be taken not to overload a subject by Not too many 
a multiplicity of details. To accomplish d®^^^^^- 
this, only the most important items of the irregular 
synopsis should be taken. To attempt more is to cause 
the lesson to break of its own weight. Most of the ob- 
jects properly selected as the basis of the lessons of the 
lower grades may readily be reduced to form seven to 
ten items. The smaller the number the better. 

Now what use is to be made of this synopsis? It is 
obvious that if the pupil has the synopsis be- xjse of 
fore him on the blackboard and is called upon ^^^^p^^^- 
to state without being questioned what he knows about 
salt, the synopsis will be to him a brief set of arranged 
suggestions or notes, and that with a little practice he 
will be able with its aid to make a ^^ continuous oral 
statement.^' But a much more important use can be 
made of this synopsis. 

The next step is to train the class to reproduce it for 
themselves. This will be found to be of 

, ,' 1 ' , T • ' -, T • Reproduction. 

great practical importance, and is indeed in- 
dispensable. The memory will now be called into ex- 
ercise to remember the facts, and the brief notes with 
which they are associated. The judgment will be 
trained to arrange them in their logical order of se- 
quence. When by many lessons this has been made a 



384 OBJECT LESSORS. 

mental habit, the influence of the training will be felt 
upon all the other school lessons, as well as through life. 
There are several ways of accomplishing this step of re- 
producing the synopsis. The following is one of the 
most simple, expeditious and efficient. Skilful teachers 
will readily devise methods of their own. 

1. "Write the seven to ten or more items upon the 
blackboard in their proper order. This has already been 
determined by the pupil. Place its proper number be- 
fore each item. 

2. Tell the pupils to look carefully at the items and 
try to remember them, and that you will presently re- 
quire them to be written in the same way upon the slates 
and from memory. 

3. Cover the synopsis with a newspaper or the con- 
venient screen, and at a given signal let the pupils try 
to reproduce it upon their slates. 

4. Call upon one to read what he has written, and let 
the rest of the class, without looking upon their slates, 
tell what he has omitted or what error he has made. 
Then give all a brief opportunity to correct and com- 
plete. Have the slates cleaned, and try once or twice 
more, if necessary, until a reasonably correct result is 
obtained. Clear the synopsis from the blackboard. 

5. The final step is obvious. It is that for which all 
that precedes has been the preparation. Let a sufficient 
number of pupils be called upon one after another to 
make a connected oral statement of such facts and ideas 
as each can properly recall, glancing from time to time, 
as he may find it necessary, at the synopsis upon his 
slate. 



keproduction". 285 

Specimen Object Lesson". 
llie Bear — Use Pictures, 

Parts. 

Broad head ; strong, clumsy body, covered with long coarse 
hair ; stout thick legs ; short tail ; large, slightly pointed ears ; 
■small, bright eyes ; front teeth in both jaws; canine teeth (two 
in each jaw), long, strong, and slightly curved backwards; 
molars broad and surmounted with tubercles ; five toes on each 
foot, each having a long, stout, curved claw or nail, fitted for dig- 
ging or climbing (not retractile). Sole of foot naked ; simple 
stomach. 

Hah its. 

Eats animal and vegetable food ; walks on his flat feet (hence 
called plantigrade) ; climbs trees; nocturnal ; stands readily on 
hind feet ; uses fore feet for defence by striking or hugging. 

Uses. 

Flesh, leather, fur, curiosity. 

Dwell on adaptation of parts to habits and uses. 

Miscella7ieous. 

Cunning, unsocial ; spends the winter in caves or in hollow 
trees, almost without food ; dangerous and formidable ; some- 
times called Bruin. (Why?j 

A few lessons should be given with the use of pic- 
tures, upon the lion, tiger, wolf, fox, raccoon. The 
cat, dog, and bear being the types of the families to 
"which they respectively belong, the matter furnished 
above will answer in all essential particulars for classi- 
fying the other animals. 

Give lessons on likenesses and differences; from the 
former get the idea and term carnivei'ous, and from the 
latter the following: 



286 



OBJECT LESSORS. 



Carniverous Animals. 



Cat family. 
Dog " 
Bear " 
X " 



Note. — The other families of this order are not given, because 
to attempt so much would defeat the object of the lessons. 

Models for identifying or describing: 

Oral 

The lion is a wild, ferocious, toe-walking animal that belongs 
to the cat family of carniverous animals. 

Written. 
Wild. 

[ Cat family. 



Carnivorous 
Animals. 



Digitigrade. 
Claws retractile. 



Front teeth in both jaws. "1 
\ Canine, long, hooked, fit- 



ted for tearing. 
Molars, uneven, sharp, 

fitted for cutting. 
Simple stomach. 



V Carniverous. 

1 
J 



After each animal studied has been identified accord- 
ing to plans given, and a general talk had upon the 
whole order, a composition should be written upon the 
subject. Carnivorous animals. 

Several weeks may be spent profitably upon a com- 
parison of Herbivorous and Carnivorous animals. 

The following points are suggested. 



Kinds of teeth. 
Kinds of stomachs. 

Shape and comparative size of trunks, 
especially the abdominal region. 

Acuteness of senses. 
Pliability of osseous structure 



Kinds of food. 
Nature of food. 

Quantity of food. 

j Manner of obtaining 
\ food. 

Manner of obtaining 
food. 



I 



USE OF APPARATUS. 287 

Freedom of motion of the ) - - j Manner of obtaining 
limbs. f I food. 

Kinds of feet. - - - j General habits manner 

i of obtaming food. 

Muscular power, (Relative.) ) i Obstacles to be over- 

Limbs as weapons of offence >■ - -I come in obtaining 



or defence. ) ( food. 

The animal in each order most 
remote from the type. \- - Food (both kinds.) 



(Hog, bear.) 

The work indicated by this paper will require more 
time than that of the preceding papers. 

II. WITH APPARATUS. 
/. Di7'ections. 

1. Let the pupils describe the apparatus. 

2. Let the pupils perform the experiments. 

3. Let the pupils announce the experiments. 

4. Use simple objects and illustrations. 

5. Proceed by rudimentary facts. 

6. Proceed by individual cases to deduce laws. 

7. Let the principles be developed by the pupils. 

8. Let the pupils perceive that we arrive at results by 
three different ways: 1st, by o'bservatio7i; 2d, by experi- 
ment; 3d, by effects. 

II. Cautions. 

1. Speak slowly. 

2. Repeat carefully. 

3. Use simple language. 

4. Write points on the board. 

5. Require pupils to copy. 

6. Keep close to the subject. 

7. Require pupils to answer in complete statements. 



^88 OBJECT LESSONS. 

8. Eepeat experiments and illustrations. 

9. Reproduce each lesson carefully. 

10. Never use a term that has not been fully de- 
veloped. 

n . Guide the pupiFs thoughts, but do not lead them. 

12. Arrange a definite plan. 

13. Work so as to secure and hold attention. 

14. Let your ol:gect be to guide pupils to see clearly 
and infer correctly. 

Genekal Formula. 

/. Objects should he presented, 

1. To the senses, or perception. 

2. To the reflective or reasoning powers. 

3. Their features should be thoroughly memorized. 

//. Ideas should be developed, 

1. By appealing to the senses. 

2. By comparison. 

3. By experiment. 

4. By reason. 

Specimek Lesson" on Divisibility. 

The teacher should have on the table different articles, 
as slips of wood, a lump of coal, pieces of glass, brick, 
stone, etc., glass jar containing water, cochineal, car- 
mine, etc. 

First, let the i3upils describe the articles, as, 

" You hold in your hand a piece of pine wood ten inches in 
length, two inches in breadth and one-half inch in thickness." 

See that they express the truth and use accurate lan- 
guage. 



LESSOiq" Ol!i DIVISIBILITY. 289 

" You hold in your hand a lump of coal about as large as a 
hen's egg." 

" You have in your hand a piece of brick about four inches in 
length, four inches in breadth, and two inches in thickness." 

"You hold in your hand a glass jar containing one quart of 
clear water," etc., etc. 

The teacher may now place in the hands of the pupil 
a small slip of wood and tell him to do some- 
thing with it. The pupil will either break, 
cut, or split it. The teacher will ask him to observe 
what he has done with it. The pupil will answer, ^^I 
have broken it."^ The teacher will so question the 
pupils as to draw out an answer similar to the following: 
''The wood may be separated into parts." 

Again the teacher will request one of the pupils to 
take the hammer and do something wdth the 
coal. The pupil will break it, and he per- 
ceives that the coal may be broken into pieces. 

The teacher will also question the pupil so as to draw 
out the following' answer: ''Coal may be 

i T • MO n . 1 T Cochineal. 

separated into parts. bo proceed with the 
brick, glass, stone, iron, etc., and lastly take the glass 
jar and put in a few grains of cochineal, carmine, or 
indigo, and let the pupils notice the effects. They will 
say that the cochineal is coloring the water; let them 
see that the cochineal is separated into thousands of parts; 
lead them to say that cochineal " may be separated into 
parts." The teacher should write all these facts on the 
board, and require the pupils to spell the words. See 
that the children begin every statement with a capital 
letter and end it with a period. 

The lesson thus far developed wdll appear on the 
board in the following form: 



^ Coal. 



290 OBJECT LESSONS. 

1. "Wood may be separated into parts. 

3. Coal may be separated into parts. 
8. Glass may be separated into parts. 

4. Brick may be separated into parts. 

5. Iron may be separated into parts. 

6. Cochineal may be separated into parts. 

Pupils should be required to copy the above neatly. 
General ^^^^ reproduce it. They should be led to 

principle. perceive that all objects may be separated 
into parts. At this stage ask them to give a general 
name to all things that they can perceive. They will 
give the names: things, objects, articles, substance, 
matter, — perhaps not the latter; if they do not give the 
word matter the teacher should give it. Tell the pupils 
that ^' matter " is the term you wish them to use. Now 
lead them to perceive that '' Matter may be sepa- 
rated into parts." Now tell them that this properly 
is called by a certain term. Divisibility, and lead them 
to develop the definition from the knowledge already 
possessed. For example, that property of matter 
which allows it to be separated into parts is Divisibility. 

The lessons will now appear on the board in the fol- 
lowing form: 

1. Wood may be separated into parts, 

2. Coal may be separated into parts. 

. 3. Glass may be separated into parts. 

4. Brick may be separated into parts. 

5. Iron may be separated into parts. 

6. Cochineal may be separated into parts. 

7. Musk may be separated into parts, etc. 

Oeneral Laic. — All matter may be separated into parts. 
Definition. — Divisibility is that property of matter which allows 
it to be separated into parts. 



BOOKS FOR REFERENCE. 291 

The pupils should memorize the General Law and the 
Definition. The teacher may give extended informa- 
tion in relation to divisibility, speaking of a grain of 
musk, of the small portions it throws off, and of various 
minerals. 



The best statement of the advantages of such teaching is found 
in " How to Teach Natural Science in the Public Schools," 15 
cts., by Dr. Wm. T. Harris, Commissioner of Education. Arey's 
"Laboratory Manual of Experimental Physics," 75 cts,, gives 
minute directions for the construction of inexpensive apparatus. 



SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 



School management may be considered under three 
heads: I. Organization; II. Government; III. Con- 
duct of Recitations. 

I. ORGANIZATION. 

School organization is a system of arrangement de- 
Purpose of signed to secure constant employment, effi- 
organization. cient instruction, and moral control. It 
aims at providing the means of instructing and educat- 
ing the greatest number in the most efficient manner, 
by the most economical expenditure of time and money. 

Organization puts each child in its proper place; al- 
lots to each class proper work, — proper in kind and 
amount; secures to each subject the time that is justly 
its due; arranges the work, both as to place and to kind, 
so as to preserve a quiet room; and properly distrib- 
utes the work, so that no interest of the school in any 
of its parts shall suffer. 

The young teacher should not select a difficult school 
Choice of ^^ first. Too many teach for the money, 
a school. ^^^ ^Q j^Q^ consider whether or not they are 
adapted to particular schools. 

The contract should be in writing, and express defi- 
nitely the conditions. Both parties should 

Contract. . . 

have a copy. Like all other business, this 
should be done in a husiness-Uke manner. It is import- 
ant that the teacher should know both his rights and 

(292) 



HOW TO BEGIN". 293 

his duties, and he should not begin school without a 
careful reading of Bardeen^s " Common School Law for 
Common School Teachers." 

Preparation for the first day's work is all impor- 
tant. The seeds of failure are frequently rpj^^ ^^^^ 
sown the first hour. The teacher should ^^5"- 
have a plan in his mind: just what lie icill do; how he 
toill do it; and luhen he will do it. He should not try 
to accomplish too much the first day. Let him not be 
too anxious about courting the favor of pupils — good 
discipline cannot be established in a day; he should use 
words expressive of friendly feelings and good intentions; 
he should not let frowns cloud the brow, although all 
may not be, at the outset, just as one might wish; he 
should leave nothing to the impulse of the moment; he 
should ,be firm, watchful, and uniform; he should en- 
deavor to make the^rs^ impression pleasant. 

Do not attempt to hear recitations the first morning; 
after opening the school with a general ex- Y'wst 
ercise, let them all join in singing some exercises. 
familiar piece; this will dispel embarrassment. The im- 
portance of singing in school as an aid to school govern- 
ment, can hardly be overestimated. The ^^Song 
Budget, '^ and '^^The Song Century" at 15 cts. each are 
certainly within the means of every school. 

Write on the board the requirements, and pass slips 
of paper, asking all that can write to hand ^^^Q^m nt 
in the following, viz. : 

1. The full name. 

2. The full name of parent or guardian. 

3. Residence. 

4. Age. 

5. His studies and classes for the term before. 



294 SCHOOL ORGANIZATIO]S'. 

Let some pupils pass around and take the names, etc., 
of those who cannot write. 

In the highest classes institute a written examination. 
This can be made a test exercise in spelling, 

Classification. , . " „, 

penmanship, and the use oi language. The 
questions need not be difficult; ten questions upon 
the different subjects will test the knowledge of the pu- 
pils as well as twenty. The pupils that cannot write 
should be examined orally, and record kept of the stand- 
ing of each pupil. It is not best to make sudden and 
radical changes; better adopt the classification of your 
predecessor, if you have not confidence in your own 
ability. Be especially careful not to find fault with the 
methods and work of the term before. Choose points 
to commend, not to criticise. 

Make all changes gradually and quietly and let the 
pupils see that they are necessary for the good of the 
school. 

After having graded the pupils, attempt a tempor- 
Forming ^^J classification. It will be impossible to 
classes. classify permanently at first, and the pupils 

should so understand it. 

There should be not more than four grades in district 
schools. The primer and the first reader should be the 
limit of the D grade; the second reader, of the grade; 
the third reader, of the B grade; and the fourth reader, 
of the A grade. The number of classes in each grade 
should not exceed four, and by class classification they 
need not exceed this number. 

The teacher is now ready to draw up the plan of work, 



A DAILY PROGRAMME. 295 

specifying the number of classes and the 

,7 \e 1 • • T 1-11 j^i Progi-amme. 

time of beginning, ending, and the length 
of each recitation. 

The programme should provide for study as well as 
for recitation. It lessens the labor of teaching, makes 
the work more effective, promotes good order, cultivates 
systematic habits, and promotes the ambition of pupils. 

While it is well to follow the programme carefully, 
the organization and discipline must not be too mechan- 
ical, or pupils will tire of it. No change in classes 
should be made for visitors, unless by special request. 

Pupils should be seated according to classification, so 
far as practicable, and graded according to Movement 
height, the tallest pupils seated in the rear, of ^'lasses. 
The teacher should have the entire charge of seating 
the pupils, and should change seat-mates when advis- 
able. As a rule it is not best to place pupils of the same 
temperament together, and seat-mates should understand 
that if they are disorderly they will be separated. Class 
movements should be conducted with precision, and no 
disorder should be allowed in the room. In no instance 
should the school-room be used as a play-ground, nor 
should pupils be allowed to deface, destroy, or in any 
way injure the school property. 

As a suggestion to teachers who do not find a pro- 
gramme of work already adopted in school, we give here 
the Course of Study adopted in 1889 by the Association 
of Montgomery, Fulton and Herkimer, Counties, N. Y., 
and approved by the State Superintendent. 

FIRST YEAR. 
Reading. — Familiar words, phrases, and sentences from black- 
board, chart, and books. First Reader begun. Phonics. 



296 SCHOOL OKGANIZATIOIS'. 

Writing. — Copying the reading lessons in script. Names of 
letters taught incidentally. 

Spelling. — All the words in reading lessons and similar ones 
from dictation. 

Numhers. — Counting by I's to 100 with and without objects. 
Addition and subtraction by I's, 2's and 3's to 30 with and with- 
out objects. 

Physiology. — Body lessons on surface features. The senses 
and their organs. Cleanliness, alcoholics, and narcotics. 

Drawing. — Straight lines, angles, triangles, quadrilaterals, 
and circles developed from solid forms. See State syllabus. 
(Page 91 of this volume.) 

Object Lessons. — Familiar plants and animals. Cardinal points 
of compass. Relative positions. Colors of the spectrum. 

Recitations. — Golden Rule and ten other character-building 
gems of literature. 

Singing. — Simple exercises and calisthenic songs. The scale 
by numerals and syllables. 

Miscellaneous. — Good manners at school, at home, and on the 
street. 

SECOND TEAK. 

Reading. — First Reader completed and Second Reader begun. 
Punctuation marks and capitals used. Phonics. 

Writing. — Reading lessons copied neatly in script. Pupils' 
and parents' names written, etc. 

Spelling .—OroX and written; words taken from reading les- 
sons, and similar ones from dictation. 

Numhers. — Notation and numeration to 100,000. Addition 
and subtraction tables. Dry measures, liquid measure, and long 
measure taught by use. 

Physiology. — Body lessons. Care of eyes, ears, teeth, and gen- 
eral health. Alcoholics and narcotics. 

Draioing. — Outlines from models and other objects. See State 
syllabus. 

Object Lessons. — Familiar plants and animals with reference to 
their parts and their uses. Familiar land and water divisions. 



A COURSE OF STUDY. 297 

Recitations. — Ten character-building gems of literature, and 
three longer recitations before the school. 

Siiigimj. — Simple exercises and calisthenic songs. The scale 
by numerals, syllables, vowel sounds, and the letters. 

Miscellaneous. — Good manners at school, at home, on the 
street, etc. 

THIRD YEAR. 

Beading. — Second Reader completed. Sight reading. Silent 
reading followed by oral reproduction of the thought. Phonics. 

Writing. — Practice exercises with pen and ink for position 
and movement. Pen-tracing and copying. 

Spelling. — Oral and written. All new words from other les- 
sons and first 400 words from spelling-book. 

Arithmetic. — Multiplication and division to the 7's. Simple 
practical problems, mental and written. Develop simple frac- 
tions. 

Physiology. — Familiar tissues, principal bones and muscles and 
their uses. Care of health. Alcoholics and narcotics. 

Drawing. — Outlines from models and other objects. See 
State syllabus. 

Object Lessons. — Familiar plants and animals and their uses. 
Geography of school grounds, district and town. Time of day. 
Months of year. 

Recitations. — Ten character-building gems, and three longer 
recitations before the school. 

Singing. — Simple exercises. National and calisthenic songs. 
Drill upon the scale. 

Miscellaneous. — Morals and manners. 

FOURTH YEAR, 

Reading. — Third Reader. Frequent sight and silent reading. 
Diacritical marks thoroughly mastered. Pupils use dictionary 
frequently. 

Writing. — Practice exercises for position and movement. 
Partial pen-tracing. Letter writing. 

Spelling. — Oral and written. All new words from other les- 
sons and first 800 words from spelling-book. 
T 



298 SCHOOL ORGAKIZATIOK. 

Arithmetic. — Multiplication and division completed. Fractions 
continued. Drill for accuracy and rapidity. Practical, mental, 
and written problems. 

Physiology. — Internal organs and their uses. Care of health. 
Alcoholics and narcotics, 

Drmoing. — Outlines of objects. See State syllabus. 

Object Lessons. — Familiar garden vegetables and trees and their 
uses. Geography of county with map of towns. Products of 
county. Oral lessons on shape of the earth. 

Recitations. — Ten character-building gems, and three longer 
recitations before the school. Easy fables and proverbs. 

Singing. — Simple exercises and patriotic and calisthenic songs. 
The staff, notes, rests, and cleffs copied and analyzed. 

Miscellaneous. — Stories from American History, morals, and 
manners. 

FIFTH YEAR. 

Reading. — Fourth Reader begun. Frequent sight and silent 
reading followed by oral and written reproduction of the thought. 

Writing. — Drill on capitals, letter- writing, bills, receipts, etc. 
Copy poetry neatly. Copy-books, Nos, 3 and 4. 

Spelling. — First 1,400 words from spelling-book and all new 
words from other lessons. Drill on words misspelled or mispro- 
nounced. 

Arithmetic— Q. C, D, and L, C. M, Common and decimal 
fractions. Frequent drills for accuracy and rapidity. 

Geography. — County Map of the State of New York, with 
railroads, canals, agricultural products, and manufactures. Pri- 
mary book of the United States, 

Language Lessons. — Reproduction exercises, narrations, and 
descriptions. 

Physiology. — Circulation, respiration, and digestion. Pure air 
and water. Alcoholics and narcotics. 

Drawing. — Ten original designs for borders. See State syl- 
labus. 

Botany. — Root, stem, and leaf forms; flower clusters and parts 
of flowers. 



A COURSE OF STUDY. 299 

Miseellaneous. — Ten memory gems, and three longer recitations 
before the school. Indians and early discoverers. Morals, pat- 
riotism, and singing, 

SIXTH YEAR. 

Reading. — Fourth Reader completed and best pieces commit- 
ted to memory. Sight and silent reading followed by oral and 
written reproduction of the thought. 

Writing. — Business forms and compositions. Copy-books Nos. 
5 and 6. 

Spelling. — All new words from other lessons and first 2,000 
words from spelling-book. Rules for spelling. Drill on words 
misspelled and mispronounced. 

Arithmetic. — Compound numbers and review to percentage. 
Frequent mental exercises for analysis and principles. 

Geography. — Primary book completed and reviewed. All maps 
drawn and boundaries thoroughly mastered. 

Language Lessons. — Continue previous year's work. Compo- 
sitions upon subjects analyzed in class. 

Physiology. — The elements of the entire subject thoroughly 
reviewed. 

Drawing. — Ten original designs for borders, etc. Industrial 
drawing. See State syllabus. 

Physics. — Solids, liquids, gases, adhesion, cohesion, elasticity, 
evaporation, malleability, ductility, reflection, thermometer, ven- 
tilation, gravitation, weight, and simple machines. 

Miscellaneous. — Ten memory gems, and three longer recitations 
before the school. Prominent men, places, and events of the 
United States. Morals, patriotism, singing, etc, 

SEVENTH YEAR. 

Reading. — Fifth Reader begun. Frequent sight and silent 
reading followed by oral and written reproduction of the thought. 

Arithmetic. — Practical arithmetic to percentage. Special at- 
tention given to oral and written analysis. 

Geography. — Complete geography reviewed. 

Grammar. — Etymology, analysis of sentences, and an abun- 
dance of illustrative and constructive work. 



300 SCHOOL ORGAN"IZATION. 

Physiology. — Elementary book completed and reviewed. 

Civil Oovernment. — School district, village, town, county, and 
outlines of State and National government. 

Zoology. — Carnivora, herbivora, birds, reptiles, fishes, am- 
phibia, rodents, flies, spiders, and ants. 

Geology. — Kinds of rocks and fossils; water and glacial action,, 
strata, boulders, veins, crystals, coal, iron, gold, marble, slate, 
granite. 

Word Analysis. — 500 selected words. 

Miscellaneous. — Three compositions upon subjects analyzed by 
the pupils. Three recitations or declamations given before the 
school. Morals, patriotism, and singing. 

EIGHTH YEAR. 

Beading. — Fifth Reader completed and best pieces committed 
to memory. Sight and silent reading. 

Arithmetic. — Practical arithmetic to cube root and review. 
Special attention given to oral and written analysis. 

Geography. — Reviewed by means of State uniform examina- 
tion questions and Regents' questions. The answers to be written. 

Grammar. — The study completed and reviewed. Illustrative 
and constructive work. 

United States History. — Elementary book completed and re- 
viewed. 

Chemistry. — Oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, and car- 
bonic acid gas; air, fire, water, soap, matches, yeast, decay, bleach- 
ing, glass, iron, and steel. 

Astronomy. — Solar system, stars, comets, meteors, asteroids, 
dipper, pointers, north star, eclipses, phases. 

Word Analysis. — 500 selected words. 

Com/positions. — One each month read before the school. Sub- 
ject previously analyzed by the pupil. 

Miscellaneous. — Three patriotic declamations or recitations 
given before the school. Singing, morals, and patriotism. 



riRMN"ESS A FIEST REQUISITE. 301 

II. SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

The strength or weakness of a teacher is no where 
more clearly shown than in the government of the 
school. 

How often have I been asked, '' Tell me how to govern 
my school." The subject is the most impor- Diacuityof 
tant that can engage the attention of teach- government, 
•ers. It is one that calls for experience, judgment, and 
wisdom. Every pupil has a conscience, that decides 
on all actions contemplated or begun — decides whether 
the act is right or wrong. The fundamental rule is, 
'^Do nothing that your conscience tells you is wrong." 
This covei's the whole ground, and a score of rules will 
only weaken it. Some consciences are depraved, but 
few are seared. 

For the maintenance of a healthy discipline, it is not 
necessary that there should be great severity in the 
punishment of oifences. 

Firnmess is the first requisite to school management; 
the pupils must understand that the teacher 
has absolute control, that his authority is 
supreme; and this in most cases is sufficient in itself to 
hold the evil propensities of pupils in check. 

On the contrary, a lack of firmness will encourage the 
spirit of revolt, and make necessary frequent resorts to 
punishment of one kind or another. 

School government should be administered in such a 
way that it shall be a reign of justice. The 
sense of justice is strong even in the case of 
vicious children. Offences will occur in the best con- 



302 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 

ducted schools, but the teacher must discriminate be- 
tween trivial, aggravated, and flagrant offences. 

Children know that disobedience and wrong-doing 
in general deserve punishment; and providing the de- 
gree of punishment does not exceed its just bounds, no 
feeling of resentment will be cherished toward him who 
inflicts the penalty. 

A teacher should not, generally, make a rule until 
Donotantici- there is 7^ece55^Y^/ for it. It should then be 
pate offences, enforced, and for a violation of the rule a 
penalty should be inflicted. Children soon learn to feel 
contempt for a teacher who does not insist on respect- 
ful obedience; they instinctively admire the firmness 
and decision which metes out to offenders their deserved 
punishment. Complete success in school management 
at the outset is not to be expected; only by slow degrees 
can dexterity in government be attained. Common 
sense is an important element in management. A noble 
Quaker once said, '^ There are three things a man needs 
to make him successful; first, good health; second re- 
ligion; and third good sense: if he can have but 07ie of 
these, let it be good sense; for God can give him grace,, 
and God can give him religion, but no man can give- 
him common sense.'^ 

But very few special privileges should at first be 
granted to pupils, such as leaving seats, 

ivi eges. gpeaking to one another, asking questions of 
teachers, making complaint to teachers, receiving help 
from teachers, etc. After the school is thoroughly 
organized the teacher may gradually extend them privi- 
leges, as he finds it convenient and safe, but at first they 
are troublesome. 



A CHEERFUL SCHOOL. 303 

The teacher should be careful not to disgust pupils 
with learning. Frequently revengeful feel- 
ings are excited by requirins: children to re- should be a 

^. ^ T o ^ ^ pleasure. 

main after school hours and commit lines of 

poetry to memory, or perform long arithmetic examples. 

Teachers are sometimes at fault for unlearned lessons 
on the part of pupils, because they have not told the 
children what to do or how to do it. If the young un- 
derstand the nature and object of their work, and the 
manner in which it should be prosecuted, they will find 
a pleasure in endeavoring to surmount every apparent 
difficulty. The work should be represented both as a 
duty and as a pleasure. 

A smile from the teacher lightens the labor of the 
school, and lessens the burdens of the day. ^ cheerful 
School rooms should be spacious, light and school, 
airy, — well ventilated, comfortably heated during winter, 
and erected in delightful and commanding situations. 
The walls should be adorned with pictures, mottoes, 
vines, and ornaments. 

The school-room should be made homelike as possible, 
as inviting as public halls. Teachers should frequently 
exhibit amusing and instructive experiments, and ask 
the children to assist them. The children should be 
gratified occasionally with excursions into interesting 
parts of the counti-y, to view the works of nature and 
thus increase their love of the beautiful. Scholastic 
exercises should carry delightful associations. 

The principle of emulation should be made subordi- 
nate. In an intellectual point of view emu- -^^ ^^^^ ^^ly 
lation may be satisfactory to the few that on emulation, 
excel; satisfactory to the parents and guardians, who 



304 SCHOOL GOVERN'MENT. 

are led to form false estimates of their progress and 
acquirements by the places they occupy in their respect- 
ive classes; but it often produces an injurious effect on 
the moral temperament of the young and on their com- 
panions whom they excel. 

One grand end of instruction, which has been too 
much overlooked, is to cultivate and regulate the moral 
powers — to produce love, affection, concord, humility, 
self-denial, and other moral graces. But the principle 
of emulation has a tendency to produce jealousy, envy, 
hatred, and other malignant passions. Besides it is 
only a very few in every class that can be stimulated to 
exertion by this principle, and these few are generally of 
such a temperament as to require their ambitious dis- 
position to be restrained rather than excited. A ma- 
terial prize is the least effectual mode of accomplishing 
the desired object; it is founded on injustice, inasmuch 
as it heaps honors and emoluments on those to whom 
nature has already been most bountiful. 

In the curiosity of children, there is sufficient and 
natural stimulant of the appetite for knowledge, and we 
live in a world abounding in the means of useful and 
pleasurable gratifications. 

All that is required of teachers is to aid the faculties 
with affection and judment. A certificate of diligence 
and good conduct seems to be all that is necessary to 
distinguish from the vicious, the idle, the slothful, those 
who have employed their time and talents in a proper 
manner. 

Corporal punishment, as it is generally administered, 
^^^j^ is revolting and degrading in its character, 

whipping. j^j-^(j ^i^Q necessity of resorting to it generally 



CORPORAL PUNISHMENT. 305 

indicates that there has been a want of proper training 
in the earlier stages of life. It is vain to imagine that 
children can be wMyjyed into either learning or good 
conduct; and if an enlightened and judicious mode of 
tuition were universally adopted there would seldom be 
any necessity for resorting to such a stimulus. But in 
the modes of teaching which used to prevail, corporal 
punishment was inevitable, and in some instances it 
seems still necessary. When other means of correction 
have failed and it becomes a choice between whipping 
and expulsion, whipping is almost always to be pre- 
ferred. But let the teacher be sure that it is necessary, 
and that he does not inflict it to gratify an angry feel- 
ing of his own. 

Plato said, ^' A teacher should never punish in anger." 
When reproofs are uttered in passion, and with looks of 
fury, they seldom or never produce any good elf ect, and 
not unfrequently excite a spirit of revenge against the 
reprover. 

A blacksmith brought up his son, to whom he was 
very severe, to his own trade. The urchin was never- 
theless an audacious dog. One day the old vulcan was 
attempting to harden a cold chisel which he had made 
of foreign steel, but could not succeed. ^^ Horse-whip 
it, father," exclaimed the youth, ^' if that will not harden 
it, nothing will." 

A school ought never to serve the purpose of a prison. 
Classes too young to prepare lessons them- Make school 
selves, should be provided with " busy work " ^^^^^^ ^^^^^• 
of various kinds. In mild weather they should have 
frequent recesses, and they should always be dismissed 
earlier than the older classes. 



306 SCHOOL GOVERNMEKT. 

The school should always be not ^^my" school but 
^^our^^ school, and teacher and pupils should work to- 
gether to make it excel. 

Pupils should be taught to investigate, to study, to 
Insist on tliiulc, to uotice cvcry object within the 
attention. reach of their vision, and to give an account 
of what they have seen or heard. 

This will induce a habit of attention, without which 
there can be no solid improvement in any department 
of instruction. The teacher should not proceed with 
the exercises of the school until he has the undivided 
attention of every pupil. 

We would commend to every teacher Fitches little 
manual ^' How to Secure and Eetain the Attention of 
Pupils/' and Hughes's larger work of similar name. 

Too much government may i3rove as injurious as too 
Over-ffov- little; both may prove failures. The teacher 
ermng. should govern as little and teach as much as 

possible. In some schools there is more of govern- 
ment than of teaching. The pujiils should understand 
that in no instance will the teacher stop the recita- 
tion to manage a school or discipline a pupil. If 
the teacher observes that a pupil is disorderly during 
recitation, he should silently mark him, and attend to 
the offence during recess or at some convenient oppor- 
tunity. 

All discipline has its spring in the character of the 
teacher. It depends more on the man than on his 
means. It is character that imparts efficacy to action. 

Character is the source of success or failure in all 
Character of pui*suits. So apparent is its influence in 
the teacher, schools that one who had many opportuni- 



CHARACTER OF THE TEACHER. 307 

ties for observing has said that, '^ a teacher has more 
need to watch himself than his children, as the evils 
found in a school are often traceable to some omission, 
inconsiderateness, hastiness of temper, want of firmness, 
or absence of principle in himself/^ 

The school becomes a reflector of the teacher, and in 
every case it will be an accurate reflector. A teacher 
cannot appear what he is not in the presence of his 
pupils. The attempt is vain. Their eyes pierce through 
every disguise. 

He must be what he seems, and must seem what he is. 

Love, honor, truthfulness, sincerity, consistency, 
justice, patience, and judgment, must be ele- 
ments of a teacher^s character. Earnestness of the true 
and cheerfulness are also elements. Earn- 
estness has great influence over children; cheerfulness 
is sunshine. 

Sympathy with them in their trials, sports and labors 
is an element of power; but fear never. 

Is there not a lesson prettily expressed in the follow- 
ing: 

He who checks a child with terror, 
Stops its play, and stills its song, 
Not alone commits an error, 
But a great and moral wrong. 

Give it play, and never fear it, — 

Active life is no defect; 
Never, never J^'m^ its spirit, — 

Curb it only to direct. 

Would you stop the flowing river, 
Thinking it would cease to flow? 

Onward it must flow forever, — 
Better teach it where to go. 



308 SCHOOL GOVERNMEKT. 

Particularly must it be ^ kept in view by the teacher 

, . that quietness in governing is allied vrith 
good discipline. A loud voice reiterating 
commands in an authoritative tone, is often considered 
favorable to discipline. It is not really so. A quiet 
way of issuing orders is favorable to quietness of dis- 
position among the pupils. It conveys a double impres- 
sion — that obedience is expected, and that there is a large 
reserve force at command, if the teacher should have 
occasion to use it. 

One thing deserving careful consideration is the im- 
obedience portancc of iuculcating the habit of obedi- 
from the first, qy^qq from the first. If children are accus- 
tomed from their very earliest school experience to move 
together in accordance with the fixed signals, the work 
of discipline is greatly sim]3lified. Simultaneous move- 
ments — as in rising, taking seats again, or marching — 
always contribute to the result in a very pleasing way. 
We would encourage daily drill in Calisthenics, as well 
calculated to enforce prompt obedience. 

The first thing that a child should learn is obedience. 
All governments and all peoples have regarded filial dis- 
obedience with great disfavor. The teacher should sup- 
plement the parentis work. 

HiN^TS OK THE Correction" of Special Offences. 
/. Commu7iication. 

1. By suggestion, advice, admonition. 

2. By reproof, — make it unpopular. 

3. By restraint of personal liberties. 

4. By separation of seatmates. 

5. By printed reports to parents. 



SPECIAL OFFENCES. 309 

//. Loud SfAidy. 

1. Suspend exercises until quiet. 

2. Train pupils to study with closed lips. 

III. Laugliing. 

1. By suspension of exercises. 

2. Make pupils laugh until weary of it. 

IV, Moving Noisily. 

1. Train the pupils how to walk, to stand, to sit, and 
to move. 

2. Always admonish them, when a command is vio- 
lated. 

3. Kequire the pupils to try again, until they do it 
quietly. 

4:. Slates should be covered. 

5, Let the teacher move quietly himself. 

V. Questio?is During Recitation. 

1. Prohibit them. 

2. Show their impropriety. 

3. Refuse to notice signals. 

VI. Litter on the Floor. 

1. Encourage neatness. 

2. Require the floor to be swept. 

3. Inspect the floor in the presence of the pupil,, 
without any remarks. 

VII. Writing Notes. 

1. Give pupils all the work they can do. 

2. Read the notes before the school, omitting names, 

3. Ask for the writer. 

4. Destroy the notes without reading them. 



310 SCHOOL GOYERKMEKT. 

VIII. Uncleanliness. 

1. Send pupils out till they are fit to enter. 

2. Send pupils home till they are fit to return. 

3. Insist upon cleanliness. 

IX. Disorder. 

1. Have a place for everything, and everything in its 
place. 

2. Allow no changing of position, without permission. 

3. Hold pupils accountable for the care of property. 

4. Insist on quiet attention when addressing pupils. 

X. Tattling. 

1. Point out its impropriety — it leads to gossip and 
slander. 

2. Kef use to notice it. 

XL Quan^elling. 

1. Persuade of its sinfulness. 

2. Oblige pupils to play alone. 

3. Make it unpopular by ridiculing those who engage 
in it. 

XII. Untruthfulness. 

1. Ignorance. 



1 TA' J i. J.-U I 2. Thoughtlessness. 

1. Pmd out the cause. ^ ^ SelflsLess. 

4. Innate tendency. 



2. Point out the effect. 

3. Cultivate honor. 



1. Loss of reputation. 

2. Loss of character. 

3. Loss of conscience. 

4. General demoralization. 



THE FIN^AL TEST OF THE TEACHER. 311 

111. CONDUCT OF RECITATIONS. 

As it is considered more important to digest what is 
learned than merely to acquire it, the manner of con- 
ducting a recitation becomes of the highest T^g^ ^^ 
importance. It is to be expected that the <^^e teacher, 
pupils carry away with them the habits of mind that 
the class training engenders. The ability of the teacher 
to make each recitation a model of the best method of 
investigating a subject and of expressing the results, is 
the highest recommendation for the position he holds. 

Discipline is only a means, whereas the recitation is 
an end. A failure here is a failure altogether. It has 
definite and rational aims to be carefully sought after 
and earnestly pursued. It is the most delicate part of all 
the school work. Here the teacher may exhibit skill, 
tact, and individuality; the inventive powers are to be 
taxed to their utmost, in order to bring about the de- 
sired results. 

The object is to develop the powers of the pupils, and 
this development will be attained in propor- 

ObiGCt 

tion to the ability, capacity, and ingenuity 
of the teacher. 

The conditions of success in school work are as fixed 
as the axioms of mathematics. Intense in- ^ ^.,. 

Conditions of 

terest, activity, self-reliance, well-directed success. 
effort — these are the essential features of all efficient 
methods. Any method of conducting recitations that 
embraces these is a good one. Different teachers do not 
always succeed best with the same method. 

Adaptation and variety are cardinal principles in edu- 
cation. The safe rule is: Employ the metliod which tvill 
best enable you to effect the desired results. 



312 conduct of recitatioi^s. 

General Suggestions. 

/. Essentials. 

1. A brief reproduction of the preceding lesson. 

2. A brief review of the preceding lesson. 

3. Rehearsal and critical examination of the daily 
lesson. 

4. Recapitulation of the daily lesson. 

5. Adequate preparation for the advanced lesson. 

//. Objects. 

1. The devolopment of the faculties. 

2. The acquisition of knowledge. 

3. Its application to the use of life. 

///. Ends. 

1. To develop individuality. 

2. To encourage originality. 

3. To cultivate self-reliance and self-possession. 

4. To cultivate sentiments of justice, kindness, for- 
bearance, and courtesy. 

5. To nurture the development and the growth of the 
pupils, physically, intellectually, and morally, and to 
prepare them for life's service. 

IV. Hints. 

1. Teach '' one thing at a time, and that well." 

2. Fix and hold the attention. 

3. Develop the power of close observation. 

4. Cultivate exact, concise, and ready expression. 

5. Aim to increase the attainments of the class. 

6. Determine the pupil's habits and methods of study, 
and correct whatever is faulty in either manner or mat- 
ter. 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 313 

7. Ascertain the extent of preparation on the part of 
the pupil. 

8. Encourage. This is important to prevent apostacy 
—'' back-sliding." 

9. Give preliminary drill on subsequent lessons show- 
ing what is to be done and ho^o it is to be done. This 
needs special attention. 

10. Hear reports on subjects assigned at previous 
recitations. 

11. Require pupils to answer in full and complete 
statements. 

12. Permit no pupil to speak until recognized by the 
teacher — the chairman of the meeting. 

13. Require the pupil to rise when called upon to re^ 
cite. 

14. Do not yourself recite, or repeat the pupiFs 
answers. 

15. Let system, neatness, and accuracy characterize 
all work. 

16. Be ready with criticism, but always give it in the 
spirit of kindness. 

17. Stop the recitation when there is any confusion, 
in the room. 

18. Aim to reach general principles. 

19. Remember that in primary work the '* how " al- 
ways precedes the *^why." 

20. Master subjects rather than pages. 

21. Remember that mind-training is more important 
than mere knowledge. 

22. Avoid wandering; keep the object of the lesson 
before you. 

u 



314 CONDUCT OF RECITATIONS. 

23. Avoid leaning in slavish dependence upon the 
text-book. 

24. Use judgment in the assignment of lessons. 

25. Propound lessons promiscuously. 

26. State the question — then call upon the pupil. 

27. When the pupil is called upon to recite, permit 
no interruptions, as speaking without permission, hold- 
ing up hands, etc. 

28. Cultivate honesty in every recitation. 

29v Never ^^show off '^ pet classes or pet pupils. 

30. Do not talk too much about order. 

31. Cultivate language in the pupils; let every exer- 
cise bear upon the correct use of language. 

32. Close recitations promptly. 

33. Dismiss the class in order. 

34. Be cheerful, active and energetic. 

35. Thoroughly master your subjects. 

36. ''Make haste slowly." 

37. Do not yourself remove difficulties, but teach pu- 
pils to overcome, to master them; in all instruction 
"never remove a difficulty which the pupil has the 
power to remove.''' 

38. Allow no questions foreign to the recitation. 

39. Allow no hesitation during recitation. 

40. Give entire time and attention to the recitation. 

41. Require expertness in mechanical operations. 

42. Comprehend the difference between memory of 
words and knowledge. 

43. Comprehend the difference between '' hearing a 
recitation," and teaching. 

44. Always prepare your class in advance of the lesson 
for any difficulty which may meet them. You may ex- 



GEI^ERAL SUGGESTIONS. 315 

plain the difficuly orally; you may solve an example, not 
in the book, which shall meet the difficulty; you may 
give the class a preliminary drill on the rule, or on a 
series of more difficult examples under any rule, or in 
miscellaneous examples under a number of rules. Such 
preparation, judiciously given, is calculated to keep up 
the ambition of all the class, by removing all excuses 
for laziness and discouragement. 

45. Remember that true education is the forming for 
life of correct habits of tliinlcing, feeling, and doing. 

V. Requisites. 

1. An energetic, intelligent teacher. 

2. Comfortable recitation seats. 

3. An abundance of blackboard. 

4. Apparatus, — such as globes, charts, maps, numeral 
frame, measures, etc. 

5. Eeference books. 

6. Call-bell. 

7. Proper ventilation. 

8. Equal temperature. 

VI. Preparation by the Teacher. 

1. A knowledge of the subject and of the pupils. 

2. General preparation, as special as possible. 

3. A programme for each day's work. 

4. Knowledge how to *^use" books without abusing 
them. 

No permanent results can be attained in teaching 
without thorough, careful and repeated re- Reproduc- 
production of lessons. *^^"' 

After a lesson has been given, and recited by the 
pupils in the subsequent recitation, they should be re- 



316 CONDUCT OF KECITATIONS. 

quired to restate what they learned in the preceding 
lesson, using good language and distinct and definite 
propositions. No questions should be asked by the 
teacher — and if the work has been done as it should be 
in the preceding exercise, there will be no need of any. 
In primary classes require oral reproduction; in inter- 
mediate and senior classes, written reproduction. 

In the review the teacher asks questions of the pupils, 

direct and general; pupils are required to 

eviews. construct tabulations. It is well to let the 

pupils ask questions of each other — this will inspire the 

pupils with a desire for study, and make them ready,. 

prompt, and self-reliant. 

The teacher should institute weekly reviews, both oral 
and written. 

Rehearsal is perhaps the most delicate part of the reci- 
tation. So to conduct it that pupils may pass 
a thorough examination requires skill, judg- 
ment, and experience. 

The teacher is not expected to render assistance in 
this division of the recitation; the pupils must do the 
worky and give clear proof of their comprehension of 
the lesson. If they cannot do it, the teacher is in 
fault, and not the pupils. 

During this part of the recitation, the teacher should 
not take the time "to recite ^^; it is the pupils' time. 
He is a very poor teacher who will do the work that 
should be done by the pupil. 

Before the class is excused, let them give the leading, 
salient points of the lesson — a summary — a 

Summary. ^jggg|. ^^ ^j^^ ^j^^j^^ 



GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 317 

A great deal of time is lost in the school, because 

pupils do not know what to do or llOW to do Preliminary 

it. In all primary classes oral instruction ^"^^• 
should precede pure recitation. In fact, in all classes, 
where it is necessary, oral instruction should be given. 

The main object of an education is to teach a child self- 
control — physical, intellectual, and moral. 
This can be done only through a harmonious deveiop- 
develoment of all his powers. 

Pupils should be so taught in school that they may 
have a desire to pursue other studies, and may be able 
to acquire knowledge by observation, investigation, and 
study. The knowledge imparted should be applied, as 
far as may be, to practice. 

In recitations, the expression of the thoughts which 
the pupil has acquired by study, should be how far 
embodied in his own language. verbatim. 

If the lesson contains captions, mathematical defini- 
tions, principles or tables, or fixed rules, they should be 
accurately recited in the words of the author. But they 
must first be thoroughly understood. The mind should 
be the depository of thoughts, and not of mere words and 
signs. 

In the class-recitation the pupil should be required 
to stand erect while reciting. This will give stand while 
him confidence and self-reliance. recitmg. 

It should not be known beforehand what order will 
be pursued in conducting the recitation. If Fixed order 
called on consecutively, some will be inatten- ^^ recitmg. 
tive; if called on promiscuously, the idle and inattentive 
will be called more frequently. 



318 CONDUCT OF BECITATION^S. 

Every teacher must see to it that each pupil is so 
Adaptation to classified as to be required to perform a full 
each pupil. amount of mental labor. " Each mind must 
be taxed." It is the wise teacher who is able to adapt 
his treatment and instruction to the wants of each and 
all. 

Teachers are quite apt to call out the bright, intelli- 
Do not slight g^^^t pupils in the recitation, but they should 
the dull. remember that mere scholarship does not 
make the man, and not slight those who are dull, slow to 
understand. It is not brightness that wins in lifers long 
race; it is faithfulness, perseverance, persistence. 

These qualities gave success to Nathanial Bowditch, 
the mathematician; Benjamin Franklin, the philoso- 
pher; George Peabody, the philanthropist; and Abra- 
ham Lincoln, the statesman. 

I would not intimate that scholarly ability is not 
desirable, but it is not the only test. Long and merited 
toil is the price of merit. The highest honors of pro- 
fessional life are reached, not by genius, but by lahor. 

Strive to make the recitation attractive and interest- 
ing. This requires thought and professional 

Make recita- o j. 

tions inter- skill. The tcachcr should study each lesson 
before meeting the class, not merely to en- 
able him to understand what he teaches, but to be able 
so to conduct the recitation that he will awaken and 
keep alive the interest of his pupils. The grand test of 
the teacher^s ability, and the secret of his success is 
found in his power to inspire his pupils with earnest- 
ness and enthusiasm. To wake up miiid, is his first and 
most important duty. A true teacher is alive and in 
earnest; his heart throbs with tenderness and emotion; 



A LIFELESS SCHOOL. 319 

his blood flows freely through his veins, and imparts 
cheerfulness and vigor to his being. Enthusiasm speaks 
out in his voice, glows in his countenance, and flashes 
from his eye. We need in active service more of these 
^Ve teachers; teachers that can bring order out of con- 
fusion, light out of darkness, and awake to activity the 
slumbering powers of the intellect. 

When superintendent of schools in St. Louis, Wm. T. 
Harris, LL.D., now comissioner of educa- The spirit 
tion, said that listlessness in the school- °^ "^ork. 
room might be traced to: 

1. Lack of proper ventilation. 

2. Lack of equal temperature. 

3. Too long recitations for the strength of the pupils. 

4. Injudicious and too frequent concert recitations. 

5. The practice of ^^ keeping in"*' pupils at recess or 
after school for failure in lessons or misbehavior. 

6. Lack of definite analysis of the subject of the les- 
son by the teacher during recitation. 

7. Substitution of individual explanation on the part 
of the teacher for correction (in the class) of bad habits 
of study. 

On entering the room of a careless or inexperienced 
teacher, the visitor is struck by the life- a lifeless 
less atmosphere that seems to pervade both s^^<^^^- 
teacher and pupils. The pupils all turn their gaze upon 
him as he enters a.nd stare abstractedly, forgetful of the 
presence of the teacher and of the purpose of their at- 
tendance at school. The teacher languidly, or with a 
slight flush of surprise and embarrassment, invites him 
to a seat. After a little, the pupils settle back into the 
condition prevailing before the entrance of the visitor. 



3:^0 CONDUCT OF KECITATIOXS. 

The pupils at their seats are variously employed: many 
are leaning over their desks, their faces full of ennui; 
others are endeavoring to relieve the tedium of the slow 
creeping hour by ingenious devices of their own — pin- 
traps, spit-balls, picture-books under the desks, writing 
notes to their fellows, making caricatures on their slates, 
scratching furniture, telegraphing on a small scale, etc., 
— some have books open before them, others not; the 
class that is ^^on the line "for recitations are leaning 
against the blackboards behind them, or against the 
desks in front of them; some are paying attention to the 
lesson, others are busied with the pupils at their seats. 
The teacher is distracted and confused. 

Take the room as a whole, and the lack of the one 
spirit that should prevail in it is painful to witness. 
The almost audible sigh of the whole is: ^^ Oh, that 
school were out ! " The visitor thinks of the Lotus-Eat- 
ers and of the " Land in which it seemed always after- 
noon; all round the coast the languid air did swoon, 
breathing like one that had a weary dream." 

The visitor who has come to inspect the school, looks 

carefully into the methods of instruction and 

discipline in order that he may discover the 

primary causes of this failure, and suggest its remedy. 

He notes: ''This teacher has no force; she has no 
No force in ^old over these pupils; she does not make 
the teacher, ^p ^^^ mind at the outset, that she will have 
this and not that ; she commands incessantly, and does 
not wait to see whether any command is obeyed; she ob- 
viously had not prepared herself on the lesson before 
coming to school, for, see, she holds the text-book in 
her hand and is closelv confined to the text while she 



WHAT MAKES A SCHOOL LIFELESS. 321 

asks questions; at obvious allusions to the subject of the 
previous lesson she does not pause to call it up, nor does 
she illustrate the difficult portions of the lesson for to- 
day; while she is looking m the book for the next ques- 
tion, a pupil has answered the previous one inaccurately, 
or has omitted the essential point; she treats the impor- 
tant and the unimportant questions alike; no wonder the 
pupils are listless ! " 

But he sees that this phase is not the only one where- 
in the teacher acts like a novice; in the more general 
programme similar defects manifest themselves which 
he notes accordingly: 

The class is too large and too much time is taken to 
hear it; the lesson for the next day is too Defective 
long, and no directions are given as to how to organization, 
study it; all those who fail are kept in at recess or after 
school; some receive individual explanations, and con- 
sequently get in the habit of crowding around the teach- 
er^s desk, and of depending on her direct assistance. 

Added to this, the teacher hears many parts of the 
lesson in concert, and the consequence is concert 
only those portions of tlie lessons are dwelt recitation, 
upon that are most mechanical, for only such can be 
recited in concert — discriminating and original answers 
cannot be given in concert — concert answers must be 
something verhatim and short answers: ^* Yes, Sir," 
'''No, Sir," '^Atlantic Ocean," and the like. Complete 
answers are made by the smart pupils, while the dull 
ones follow the lead and join in toward the end of the 
answer. The bright pupils answer the whole: ^^Twenty- 
five thousand miles;" the less bright one says: **Five 
thousand miles; " and the dull one: ^' Thousand miles; " 



322 CON^DUCT OF RECITATIONS. 

the dullest comes in at the word '^ Miles." These pupils 
have not the power or discipline of mind to concen- 
trate their attention for so long a recitation; they get 
fatigued before it is through, and listlessness is the 
result. 

x\gain: '^ The ventilation is not attended to, and the 
impure air causes incipient congestion of the 

Ventilation. , . , » ^ j.i i t j. i 

brain, and a lew oi the delicate ones have 
headaches, while all feel that apathy and indifference 
which is its premonitory symptom." 

" Most important is the failure of the teacher; she 
Definite ^^^^ ^^^ practise a system of definite analysis 

analysis. ^f |]jg Jessoii at recitation. She asks probing 
questions only seldom; the pupil is not made to seize 
the subject and analyze it till he thoroughly under- 
stands it. The consequence is, he does not know how 
to study the next lesson, nor when he has learned it, 
and therefore does not study at his seat, having no defi- 
nite sense of his deficiency and of his ability to over- 
come it." 

These causes of failure when generalized may be 
Preparation traced to One prevailing defect on the part 
by the teacher, of ^jjg teacher. And this may be described 
thus: The teacher fails because she does not pay care- 
ful attention to the power for work which her pupils 
actually possess, and so lay out tasks and secnre their 
accompIishme?it as to increase constantly this power of 
work. Previous preparation on the part of the teacher 
is indispensable for this result. Everything should be 
digested by the teacher before entering the school- 
room; she should re-enforce the mome^its hy the hours, 
and thus be able at all times to bring to bear the entire 



METHODS OF INSTRUCTION^. 



32a 



weight of her character upon the pupil. The practice 
of keeping the pupil in at recess for failure in lessons is 
very baneful in its effects. The cause of the failure is 
probably owing to inability to concentrate his mind, and 
here the cure j^rescribed is calculated to heighten the 
disease. The teacher should get the lesson into such 
shape that the pupil can master it by a general assault, 
and he should not be allowed — at home or in school — 
to make a dissipated, scattering attack on it. 

The country needs school-teachers, not school-keepers. 
The country needs men and women to conduct rational 
recitations, not to hear classes. The country needs 
masters, and mastery is attained only through voluntary 
and persistent labor. Michael Angelo says: ^^ Trifles 
make perfection, but perfection is no trifle." The 
teacher should be watchful, faithful, and prayerful. 
Then, and not until then, will he attain success in 
teaching. 

Methods of Instruction. 



Methods 

of 

Teaching. 



I. Text-hooh 



'' \ 2. 



Rote, memoriter. 
Rational, 



\ 



11. 



^ J { 1. Rote. 

^^^^' \2. Rational. 

III. Socratic, 

IV. Topic or Subject, 
V. Discussion, 

VI. Lecture. 

In our schools, all the above methods may be found 
and many other ways not entitled to the name of 
method. 

The text-book method is by some a much abused 
method. When teachers simply require the Text-book 
pupils to commit a lesson to memory and 



method. 



324 CON^DUCT OF RECITATIOKS. 

recite it mechanically, this is an abuse of the method. 
The subject is one of unusual interest at the present 
time, for the reason that so much is said and written 
for and against the so-called ^' oral " and ^"^ text-book '* 
methods respectively. While on the one hand the text- 
book method is stigmatized as a dead me- 

Memonter ^ " 

recitations, chanical memorizing of the words in the 
book and then a parrot-like repetition of the same to the 
teacher, who sits behind the desk and looks on the book 
to see that the lesson is given verbatim, on the other 
hand the oral system is accused of relieving the pupils 
from the necessity of study; of throwing all the work 
upon the teacher. 

No doubt there are legions of unskilful, untrained or 
Unskilled negligent teachers in the country. Indeed, 
teachers. they far outnumber the skilful and pains- 
taking — ^and it is hardly fair to judge the methods they 
employ when they misuse the position and the instru- 
ments placed in their hands so far as to make the text- 
book a Procrustean bed and the recitation a benumbing 
process to the faculties of the child. The mere memor- 
izing of the context is no index to the understanding of 
it. A school-mistress once said to a little girl: ^^How 
is it, my dear, that you do not understand this simple 
thing? '^ "I do not know, indeed," she answered, with 
a perplexed look; *^^but I sometimes think I have so 
many things to learn that I have no time to under- 
stand." 

It is not best to condemn a method that has been in 
use for hundreds of years, because all cannot attain good 
results. But systems should not have their merits ad- 
judged by their results in the hands of bunglers; they 



METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 325 

should be compared in their results as achieved at the 
hands of those who have mastered the methods. A sys- 
tem is not responsible for the failure of those who do 
not follow out its principles. 

Grand results have been attained with the text-book 
method, by adopting the rational method of recitation, 
— appealing to reason, to a proper understanding of the 
context lefore memoriziyig. The latter is insisted on by 
all rational teachers. 

The oral method is distinctively German, and like 
the text-book method has its friends and foes, q^^i 
In some schools the teachers lecture before method, 
the children, and require them to reproduce the exact 
language of the lecture. In this case it is as much a 
rote or memoriter exercise as the text-book method. 

In other schools, the teachers ask suggestive questions,. 
— they excite the pupils' curiosity, awaken the mind 
and easily hold the attention. The pupils do the work^ "/ 
and infer the answers through their powers of percep- 
tion. This is real education. This is the rational oral 
method. 

The best method is a philosophical combination of 
the oral and the text-book methods — uniting r^^^^ combined 
the merits and rejecting the faults. Oral™®*^^*^- 
methods predominate properly in American primary 
schools; text-book methods in secondary schools and 
colleges; and we return again to oral methods, or lec-^ 
tures, in the professional schools. The true place for 
oral methods is in preparatory work. Oral instruction 
should lead to and prepare for the text book. 

The best work in American schools is found in a judi- 
cious combination of both methods. Oral instruction 



326 COI^DUCT OP BECITATIOKS. 

alone, if carried through a course of instruction, even 
if teachers are prepared to give it, is not the best method. 
It should lead to a mastery of other thoughts than those 
on the printed page. The most eifective teaching uses 
both the oral and text-book methods. If used properly, 
oral teaching will teach the pupils how to investigate. 
Oral instruction, in its results, is of the highest impor- 
tance to American citizenship. Young children have 
few ideas, for they have heard little, read little, and 
their observation has not been developed. 

Oral instruction takes a more permanent hold of the 
mind than memorizing from books. It affords the 
learner an opportunity to ask questions as the lesson 
proceeds, and gives the teacher the entire control of the 
youthful minds that lie fallow before him. It opens 
also a field for enthusiasm in teaching and learning, 
where everything with some teachers is mere drudgery. 
It would give life where there is nothing now but worn 
and worthless machinery in our public schools. 

Children are often made to commit to memory names 
and dates and rules, without a proper understanding of 
them. The text-book becomes the real instructor, and 
not the living man or woman who should impart instruc- 
tion. 

We would not discard the text-books entirely, neither 
would we exclude them. 

The proper place for oral instruction is in the primary 
department; and in other classes the oral instruction 
should be of such a character as to prepare the pupils for 
studyy so that no time may be wasted. 

Pupils should be made to study their text-books; 
learn short lessons; be asked by their teachers not only 



METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 327 

the questions in the books, but others that will test their 
knowledge and awaken their interest. 

Some pupils learn readily from their text books, and 
get along with a little explanation. Some are more dull 
and need the stimulus of recitation, of questions and 
answers, and of illustrations. 

By skilful questioning the pupil is led to discover the 
truth, and trained to think. Subjects are socratic 
developed from the standpoint of the learner, "method. 
The teacher stimulates and directs, but never crams. 
Pupils are encouraged to present their own thoughts. 
If correct, the teacher deepens and widens their views 
by suggestive illustrations. If incorrect, the absurdity 
is shown by leading the pupils to discover the legitimate 
consequences. Thus the burden of thought and re- 
search is thrown upon the learner, who, at every step, 
feels the joy of discovery and victory, and the conscious 
pleasure of assisting the teacher. Such teaching results 
in development, growth, and educatio7i. *^The exercise 
of the child's own powers, stimulated and directed, but 
not superseded, by the teacher's interference, ends both 
in the acquisition of knowledge and in the invigoration 
of the powers for future acquisition. '' 

In this method the pupils are trained to tell consecu- 
tively their own thoughts. The art of con- Topical 
nected discourse is essential; hence by our ™®^^^^- 
best teachers the topical method is made the basis of the 
recitation. This should be required of every class in 
school, whenever the subject will admit of it. No other 
method can so easily secure the results to be accom- 
plished. Pointed, searching questions are asked when- 
ever necessary, and instruction is given in the Socratic 



328 CONDUCT OF RECITATIONS. 

method. At any moment any member of the class is 
liable to be called on to explain a difficulty, to answer a 
question or to continue a topic. Thus life, vigor, un- 
divided attention, and effective individual eifort are 
secured and maintained throughout the recitation. 

Prompting, in all its forms, is inartistic and perni- 
cious. The aim is to train the pupils to habits of inde- 
pendent expression, as well as independent thought. The 
exclusive use of the topic method is an extreme to be 
studiously avoided, as it excludes instruction and fails 
to elicit the intense interest and the earnest effort of 
every member of the class. It should have a limited 
use in the primary department, more extended in the 
intermediate and senior departments. In the primary 
classes, the terms may be developed individually, and 
written' on the board, thus forming a complete tabula- 
tion and classification. 

The pupils should be required to review the terms 
written on the board, without any assistance from the 
teacher. 

In intermediate and senior classes, the pupils should 
be taught to tabulate and classify, and recite from the 
tabulation. 

Briefly and pointedly pupils present their arguments 
Discussion ^^ favor of their respective positions. Criti- 
method. cisms are urged and answered. Every point 

is sharply contested. The reasons for and against are 
carefully weighed. 

Educationally the discussion method stands high. 
It is like the interest excited in debate; in these mental 
conflicts, the utmost power of the pupil is put forth. 



METHODS OF TEACHING. 329 

There is no better way to cultivate independence, 
self-assertion, liberality, and the habit of treating an 
opponent courteously and fairly. The discussion 
method supplements the Socratic and topic methods. 
It breaks up monotony, dissipates stupidness and in- 
sipidity. 

From the primary school to the university this method 
may be used with incalculable advantage; but in all 
cases it must be kept well under the control and direc- 
tion of the teacher. 

Perhaps there is no method that will excite greater 
interest than this rational method. There is less exam- 
ining, less artificial training and more solid develop- 
ment. The discussion method is pre-eminently the 
method to make thinking men and thinking women. 

Lecturing is another method of instruction which has 
its uses and abuses. A lecture by the Lecture 
teacher should never be substituted for a method, 
recitation by the class. Many teachers suppose that the 
measure of their ability as instructors is the power they 
have to explain and illustrate before their classes, and 
hence spend most of the time assigned to recitation in 
the display of their own gifts of speech. But in the 
recitation room the good teacher has but little to say. 
Her ability is tested more by her silence than by her 
loquacity; by her power to arouse and direct the activity 
of her pupils, more than by her own actions. In pro- 
fessional schools and in the advanced classes in colleges, 
the time for recitation is largely spent in this way. 
The lecturer outlines the subjects, suggests the fields of 
research, indicates the line of thought, gives much in- 
formation, and stimulates the pupils to effort. If the 

V 



330 CONDUCT OF EECITATIOKS. 

student, by long continued effort makes the lecture his 
own, great will be the results. 

But nowhere in this country has the lecture method 
alone given entire satisfaction. It has been found neces- 
sary to institute oral and written examinations in order 
to make it effective. 

The conversational lecture gives results. The class 
by skilful questions are led into rich fields of thought. 
Topics are discussed by the teacher and the pupils. 
Questions are asked that produce thought; experiments 
are performed that elicit attention; pupils are led to 
draw inferences from wha' they perceive. This method 
was admirably used by the wise Socrates, Plato, and 
Aristotle. From these great masters modern teachers 
may learn important lessons. 

The lecture method is utterly out of place in primary 
classes. Wherever it has been used it proves a failure. 

Whenever a teacher gives a lecture to her pupils, she 
should require them to take notes, and recite after every 
formal lecture. It is well for the teacher to write on 
the board a tabulated classification, and require the 
pupils to copy. 

General Remarks. 

Whatever method the teacher may follow, ONE end 
should be attained: the best possible development of 
true manhood and womanJiood. The inquiry may rise, 
what is the end of study, recitation, and instruction? 

Not the attainment of knowledge, but discipline — 
POWER. It is undoubtedly a fact that '^ secular educa- 
tion will make a good man better, but a bad man 
worse." 



LAWS OF QUESTIONIN^G. 331 

Education, then, is not the storing of knowledge, but 
the development of power; and the law of development 
is thorough exercise. 

Any system of education, therefore, which weakens 
the motive or removes the necessity of laborious tJmik- 
ing is false in theory and ruinous in practice. 

There is only one way to acquire knowledge, and that 
way is through study — the voluntary and continual ap- 
plication of the mind to a subject. 

Laws of Questioning. 

1. Questions should be clear and concise. 

2. Questions should be to the point. 

3. Questions should be adapted to the capacity. 

4. Questions should be logical. 

5. Questions should not be ambiguous. 

6. Avoid questions that give a choice between two 
answers. 

7. Avoid direct questions. 

8. Avoid set questions. 

9. Avoid general questions. 

10. Avoid questions that simply exercise the faculty of 
memory. 

Objects of Qicestioning. 

1. To find out what the pupils know. 

2. To ascertain what they need to know. 

3. To awaken curiosity. 

4. To arouse the mind to action. 

5. To illustrate; to explain, — when necessary. 

6. To impart knowledge not found in the text-book. 

7. To fix knowledge in the mind. 

8. To secure thoroughness. 



333 CONDUCT OF RECITATIONS. 

Cautions to be Observed in Questioning. 

1. Ask questions only once. 

2. Vary the questions. 

3. Begin the exercise with an easy question. 

4. Let your questions be connected. 

5. When a question is asked do not suggest the first 
words of the answer. 

6. Enunciate every question with distinctness. 

7. Anticipate answers; arrange suggestive questions* 

8. Never neglect or ridicule an answer. 

9. Never tell a child what you could make that child 
tell you. 

10. Question the lesson into the minds of the pupils^ 
and question it out again. 

11. Lead the pupil by a pleasant question to discover 
his own mistake, instead of directly charging him with it. 

General Suggestions. 

1. Show the necessity of a subject before you begin 
to teach it. 

2. Require one subject to be understood before tak- 
ing up another. 

3. Require everything that is taught to be reproduced 
by the pupils. 

4. Always take up subjects in their logical order. 

5. That which is attempted should be thoroughly 
mastered. 

6. Remember that all the powers are developed by 
being judiciously and vigorously exercised. 

7. Remember that knowledge is of little value unless 
it can be utilized. 

8. Remember that a lesson is not given until it has 
been received. 



MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 333 

Special Suggestions to Young Teachers. 

1. Make weekly or bi-weekly inspections of all books 
held by the pupils, holding each responsible inspection 
for the right use of the same. This will ^^ ^^^^^• 
prevent much mutilation and destruction of books. 

2. In the class-room teachers should not confine the 
attention of the pupils exclusively to what outside 

is found in the books. '^ Books are but ^^^^"^ation. 
helps," or instruments; and while that which is con- 
tained in them should be judiciously used and thor- 
oughly understood, yet, so far as time will permit, the 
teacher can with advantage introduce such matters as 
are not only valuable in themselves, but will tend to im- 
press the subject of the lesson more firmly upon the 
mind. 

3. Be judicious and sparing in awarding credit or dis- 
credit marks; to be lavish, would render judicious 
them cheap and comparatively valueless. marking. 

4. Before reproving delinquents in recitation, first 
inquire whether or not they have studied, credit honest 
and, if so, what eifort has been made. Some 

pupils may devote much time and labor to the acquire- 
ment of their lessons, and yet in the class room be weak 
in their recitation; to denounce such would discourage 
rather than stimulate. 

5. During a recitation, the attention of all should be 
engaged upon the lesson or subject under Ensure 
consideration. attention. 

6. When a pupil applies for assistance on any ques- 
tion, do not accomplish the whole yourself, qj^^ ^^^^ ^ju^ 
nor send him away entirely unaided; but not too much. 
after he has studied the subject faithfully, present to 



334: COi^DUCT OF RECITATIONS. 

him one or two of the leading principles involved, and 
then leave him to develop the matter himself. Too 
mucli aid is sometimes ivorse than too little. 

7. Before entering on the duties of the day, the 
The teacher's teacher should be thoroughly conversant 
preparation, ^ith the Subject of each lesson. A teacher, 
while conducting a recitation, should never be obliged 
to refer to the booh or map for the purpose of ascertain- 
ing whether or not the pupil is correct in his answer. 
Besides displaying a weakness on the part of the teacher, 
there arises in the mind of the pupil the query — why 
should 1 study what my teacher does not know? 

The teacher should be first well acquainted with the 
true answer to every question, and the correct pronun- 
ciation of every word in the several lessons. It will be 
seen that many advantages attend this plan; the chief 
of which are — much time is saved, the teacher instructs 
with more facility and success, and the pupil, observing 
the familiarity of the teacher with the several subjects, 
feels for him and for the subjects a greater respect. 

8. In hearing a lesson, give the pupil time to answer 

when he appears to have a correct idea, and 

Be patient ^^ 

but allow no merely hesitates to find words to express 
himself; but when it is evident that he is 
ignorant of the answer, waiting is but a loss of time. 
Ideas not ^' ^^ ^^^^'^ ^^^ pupils have gained ideas. 

words. Words, without ideas, clog the mind. 

10. A teacher taking charge of a new class, should at 
p^jgjj first advance it beyond the farthest point it 

forward. j^^^ previously attained in each study. In 
case the teacher finds the new class deficient in what 
has been passed over, he should not turn back until 



MISCELLANEOUS SUGGESTIONS. 335 

about two weeks have elapsed, when all necessary re- 
views may be made. When a class passes under the 
control of another teacher, a sudden retrograde move- 
ment would produce discontent in the class. At all 
times, the teacher should avoid allusion tending to dis- 
parage the course of his predecessor in the estimation 
of the class. 

11. The hearing of the class should not occupy more 
than one hour and a half daily, the remain- Reciting 
der of the day being devoted to actual teach- ^^- 1^^^^^^- 
ing, when the lessons for the following day may be ex- 
plained by the teacher. Answering in concert should 
be little used. 

12. Whenever practicable, teach by means of objects, 
or through the medium of the eye; in geog- Employ 
raphy, use globes and maps; in astronomy, the eye. 
use orrery, globes, and diagrams; in spelling, frequently 
require the pupils to write the words or sentences given. 

13. If you would have no drones in your school, talk 
at each recitation to the dullest in your class, „^ , 

•^ . Work most 

and use all your ingenuity in endeavoring to with the 

J 'o 'J _^ dullest, 

make him comprehend. The others, then, 

will be sure to understand. 

14. Make each exercise as attractive as possible. 
Think out your methods beforehand, and mustrate 
illustrate freely. ^'^^^^• 

15. Cultivate self-control; never be led 
into confusion, and above all be in earnest. 

16. Be cheerful and smile often. A teacher with a 

Ions: face casts a arloom over everything, and 

i. 11 i,-ii • A A ^ Be cheerful, 

eventually chills young mmds and closes 

young hearts. 



336 CONDUCT OF RECITATIONS. 

17. Use simple language when you explain lessons. 

Simple Long words are thrown away in the school- 

language. j.(jQjj^^ 

18. Thoroughly test each pupil on the lesson, and do 
Frequent ^^^ ^6 afraid of repetition. Review every 

reviews. j^y^ ^^, ^^^^^ ^-ji ^^ |^g^^ j^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^ 

teach too much; better teach a little and teach it well. 

19. Endeavor to make the pupils understand the 
Make them meaning of what they study. Probe the 
understand, j^^tter to the bottom^ and get at the real 
knowledge of your scholars. Cultivate the understand- 
ing, and do not appeal to the memory alone. Lay the 
foundation of knowledge firmly and well. 

20. Impart right principles and lead your pupils to a 

higher level, to a nobler range of thought. 

Aim high. ^^^ ' T 1 n xf X 1 -n . X 1 

Endeavor to accomplish all that skill, intel- 
ligence, and love can suggest. 

What now you do, you know not, 

But shall hereafter know, 
When the seed which you are sowing. 

To a whitened field shall grow. 

'Tis a rich young soil you're tilling; 

Then scatter the good seeds well; 
Of the wealth of the golden harvest 

Eternity will tell. 

21. Teach your pupils to fight manfully in the war- 
set a noble ^^^^ ^^ good against evil, truth against error; 
example. r^^(j abovc all, let the eternal principles of 
right and wrong govern your own life, and form a part 
of 3^our own character. If you do this, you will ^^sow 
beside all waters, and eventually bring home your 
sheaves rejoicing. '' 



FINAL MAXIMS. 337 

22. Train the eye to perceive correctly, the ear to 
understand correctly, the hand to execute ^^^^ 
correctly, the tongue to speak correctly, and niaxima. 
the mind to retain correctly. ^* Begin at the begin- 
ning.'' " Follow a natural order." ** Classify knowl- 
edge." ^'Master principles." 



A WORD IN CONCLUSION. 



To COMMISSION^ERS AND SUPERINTENDENTS. 

Upon you rest, to a^great extent, the success of the 
school and the advancement of the educational interests 
of this country. 

It is by the recommending and licensing of competent 
and efficient teachers that you are the most successful 
in promoting the interests of your charge. Let the 
teachers recommended by you be selected more with 
reference to social culture, exalted 7noral character, to 
the development of trice manliood and icomanliood, than 
to either scholarship or talent. This you can do by 
selecting and recommending only such persons as shall 
illustrate in their lives the moral lessons which should 
be set as an example in schools. 

You stand pledged to further the interests, not only 
of literature and science, but of the highest type of 
morality. 

If you would redeem this pledge you will not license 
as a teacher any one who violates the laws of moral 
purity, who gives to social dissipation the hours that 
belong to sleep, or who indulges in any practice of vice. 
A sacred trust is committed to you, which, if faithfully 
and wisely discharged, will make your own day beauti- 
ful, and scatter blessings along the pathway of coming 
years. 

(338) 



A WORD IN CO:NrCLUSION". 339 

To Teachers. 

An experience of thirty years in the field of education 
has secured principles and conclusions which Help the 
may be considered not theories, but facts, weaker. 
One fundamental fact thus gained is, that the school 
should be an appendage of the family, fitted to train 
the ignorant and weak by self-sacrificing labor and love, 
and to bestow the most attention on the weakest, the 
most undeveloped, and the most sinful. 

It is exactly the opposite course to which teachers are 
most tempted. The bright, the good, the industrious, 
are those whom it is most agreeable to teach, who win 
most affection, and who promote the reputation of a 
teacher, and of a school or a college. 

To follow this principle, then, demands more clear 
views of duty and more self-denying benevolence than 
ordinarily abound. 

Another is, that both quickness of preception and 
retentiveness of memory depend very greatly importance 
on the degree of interest excited. Hence °^ interest. 
the importance of educating young persons with some 
practical aim, by which, in case of poverty, they may 
support themselves. 

Another is, that there is no other knowledge so thor- 
ough and permanent as that gained in teach- Knowledge 

ing others. by teaching. 

Eepeatedly has it been observed that a lesson or a 
problem supposed to be comprehended was imperfectly 
understood, and became cle^r and only in attempts to 
aid others in understanding it. In no other profession 
is the sacred promise, "Give and it shall be given unta 
you/' so fully realized as in that of a teacher. 



540 A WORD IN^ COKCLUSION. 

Another is that in acquiring knowledge but few 
_ _ „„, , . branches should be taken at one time, and 

Few subjects ^ ^ ' 

at a time. these sliould be associated in their character, 
so that each is an assistance in understanding and re- 
membering the others. 

There is a great loss of time and labor in the com- 
mon method of pursuing four or five disconnected 
branches of study. 

The mind is distracted by variety, and feels a feeble 
and divided interest. 

In many instances, the method of cramming the 
mind with uninteresting and disconnected details serves 
to debilitate rather than promote mental power. The 
memory is the faculty chiefly cultivated, and this at the 
expense of the others. 

In government be gentle yet firm; not anxious to 
govern in those things that are innocent and harmless, 
but to restrain practices that are unquestionably immoral 
by the exercise of all the authority with which you are 
invested. 

In order that you may worthily discharge the duties 
which thus confront you at the threshold of your field 
of labor, it is of the first importance that your own 
habits of thought and life be wholly correct. 

No one is fit to govern others until he has learned to 
govern himself. Self-government and self-restraint are 
impossible without intelligence and virtue. 

The task of the teacher is one of great responsibility 
and labor. 

It is easier for a general to command an army than 
for a teacher to govern a school; for a general has to 



TO TEACHERS. 341 

deal with and consider only immediate results, besides 
being invested with absolute power, while the teacher 
has to consider chiefly results to be attained in the 
future, and he is forbidden by the consideration of his 
own and the pupiFs welfare to exercise other than 
qualified power. 

Then the military commander trains his soldiers to 
wield weapons only against material fortifications, while 
the teacher is to discipline those under his control in 
the skilful use of the mental and moral powers, and 
prepare them to contend successfully against superstition 
begotten of ignorance, against habits of thought and 
action that reach their root far back in the centuries, 
and '^against spiritual wickedness in high places." 
Hence great statesmen and victorious generals are of 
little value in any country without efficient teachers. 

To our public schools we must look for those who 
will be called upon to manage the affairs of families, to- 
transact the business of town and of State, to fill the 
vacated bench of justice, to sit in the halls of legisla- 
tion, and to direct and control the church of God. 

Upon the character of our schools and teachers, there- 
fore, depends the weal or woe of unborn millions, the 
prosperity or downfall of our boasted institutions. 

As the concluding thought teachers and friends, may 
we all bear in mind that our life in this world is but the 
preparatory department in the School of God. 

Let us be so attentive to the lessons given us by the 
Great Teacher, that when the day of examination with 
us severally shall come, we may hear the glad welcome 
"well done," and at last gather beyond the River, under 



542 A WORD IN^ C02!^CLUSI0N^. 

the cloudless sky undimmed by the shade of night, 
there to renew our search for knowledge and our labors 
of loye, with immortal faculties that are least weary 
when most employed. 



■THE SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATIONS.- 



Instruction in Citizensliip. 

1. Civil Government for Common Schools, prepared as a manual for 
public Instruction in the State of New York. To which are appended the- 
Constitution of the State of New York as amended at the election of 1882, 
the Constitution of the United States, and the Declaration of Independence, 
etc., etc. By Henry C. Noktham. 16mo, cloth, pp. 185. 75 cts. 

Is it that this book was made because the times demanded it, or that the 
publication of a book which made the teaching of Civil Government practi- 
cable led to a general desire that it should be taught ? Certain it is that this 
subject, formerly regarded as a " finishing " branch in the high school, is 
now found on every teacher's examination-paper, and is commonly taught 
in district schools. Equally certain is it that in the State of New York this- 
text-book is used more than all others combined. 

2. A Chart of Civil Government. By Cha.kles T. Pooler. Sheets 12x18, 
5 cts. The same folded, in cloth covers, 25 cts. 

Schools using Northam's Civil Government will find this chart of great 
use, and those not yet ready to introduce a text-book "v\ill be able to give no 
little valuable instruction by the charts alone. Some commissioners have 
purchased them by the hundred and presented one to every school house in 
the county. 

S. Handbook for School Teachers and Trustees. A manual of Scho»l 
Law for School Officei-s, Teachers and Parents in the State of New York. 
By Herbert Brownell. 16mo, leatherette, pp. 64. 35 cts. 

This is a specification of the general subject, presenting clearly, defi- 
nitely, and with references^ important questions of School Law. Particular 
attention is called to the chapters treating of schools under visitation of the 
Eegents — a topic upon which definite information is often sought for in vain. 

L Common School Laio for Comtnon School Teachers. A digest of the 
provisions of statute and common law as to the relations of the Teacher to 
the Pupil, the Parent, and the District. With 500 references to legal decis- 
ions in 28 different States. 14th edition, wholly re-written, with references 
to the new Code of 1888. By C. W. Bardeen. 16mo, cloth, pp. 120. 75 cts. 

This has been since 1875 the standard authority upon the teacher's rela- 
tions, and is frequently quoted in legal decisions. The new edition is much 
more complete than its predecessors, containing Topical Table of Contents,, 
and a minute Index. 

5. Laivs of New York relating to Common Schools, with comments and 
instructions, and a digest of decisions. 8vo, leather, pp. 867. $4.00. 

This is what is known as " The New Code of 1888," and contains all re- 
visions of the State school-law to date. 

6. The Powers and Duties of Officers and Teachers, By Albert P. Mar- 
ble, 16mo, paper, pp. 27. 15 cts. 

A vigorous presentation in Sup't Marble's pungent style of tendencies 

as well as facts. 

7. First Principles of Political Economy. By Joseph Alden. 16nio, 
cloth, pp. 1.53. 75 cts. 

Ex-President Andi-ew D. White says of this book : " It is clear, well 

arranged, and the best treatise for the imrpose I have ever seen." 

C. AV, BAROEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y. 



THE SCHOOL BULLETm PUBLICATIONS.- 



Books for Young Teachers. 

1. Common School Law fot' Common School Teachers. A digest of the 
provisions of statute and common law as to the relations of the Teacher to- 
the Pupil, the Parent, and the District. With 500 references to legal decis- 
ions in 28 different States. 14th edition, wholly re-written, Vxdth references 
to the Code of 1888. By C. W. Bakdeen. 16mo, cloth, pp. 120. Price 75 cts. 

The reason why the teacher should make this his first purchase is ihat 
without a knowledge of his duties ar^d his rights under the law he may fail 
either in securing a school, in managing it, or in drawing the pay for his ser- 
Tices. The statute provisions are remarkably simple and uniform. The de- 
cisions of the Courts, except upon two points, here fully discussed, follow 
certain defined precedents. An hour to each of the eleven chapters of thi^ 
little book will make the teacher master of any legal difficulties that may 
arise, while ignorance of it puts him at the mercy of a rebellious pupil, an 
exacting parent, or a dishonest trustee. 

^. Hand-BooJcfor Young Teachers. By H. B. Buckham, late principal of 
the State Jsormal School at Buffalo. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 152. Price 75 cts. 

It anticipates all the difficulties likely to be encountered, and gives the 
beginner the counsel of an older friend. 

3. The School Roo?n Guide, embodying the instruction given by the author 
at Teachers' Institutes in New York and other States, and especially in- 
tended to assist Public School Teachers in the Pi-actical Work of the School- 
Room. By E. V. DeGraff. Thirteenth edition, with many additions and 
coiTections. 16mo, cloth, pp.' 398. Price $1.50. 

As distinguished from others of the modern standards, this is a book of 
Methods instead of theories. It tells the teacher just what to do and how to 
do it ; and it has proved more practically helpful in the school-room than 
any other book ever issued. 

A. A Quiz-Book on the Theory and Pinctice of Teaching. By A. P. 
SotTTHwicK, author of the "Dime Question Books." 12mo, pp. 220. Price $1.00. 

This is one of the six books recommended by the State Department for 
study in preparation for State Certificates. The others are Hoose's Methods 
(|l.OO), Hughes's Ilistakes (50 cts.). Fitch's Lectures ($1.00), Page's Theory and 
Practice ($1.25), and Swett's Methods ($1.25). We will send the six post-paid 
for $5.00. 

5. Mistakes in Teaching. By James L. Hughes. American edition, with 
contents and index. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 135. Price 50 cts. 

More than 15,000 have been used in the county institutes of Iowa, and 
elsewhere superintendents often choose this book for their less thoughtful 
teachers, assured that its pungent style and chatty treatment will arrest 
attention and produce good results, 

6 How to Secure and Retain Attention. By James L. Hughes. 16mo, 
eioth, pp. 97. Price 50 cts. 

This touches attractively and helpfully upon the first serious difficulty 
tite teacher encounters. No young teacher should neglect these hints. 

7. Primary Helps. A Kindergarten Manual for Public School Teachei-s. 
By W. N. Hailmaun. 8vo, boards, pp. 58, with 15 full-page plates. Price 75 cts. 

In these days, no primary teacher can afford to be ignorant ©f " The New 
Education," and this is perhaps the only volume that makes kindergarten 
principles practically available in public schools. 

8. Dime Question Book, No. 4, Theory and Practice of Teaching. ISmo, 
paper, pp. 40. Price 10 cts. By A. P. Southwick. 

A capital preparation for examination. 

C. W. BAKDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N, Y. 



THE SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICA'J rOSS.— 



The Five Great English Boolfs. 

Tlie recognition of Teaching as a Science was much earlier in England 
than in this country, and the five books which are there recognized as stan- 
dards, have probably no equals in soundness and scope. Hence they are 
usually the first books adopted by Reading Circles, and are indispensable to 
the library of an intelligent teacher. These are : 

1. Essays on Educational Reformers. By Robert Henry Quick. Cloth, 
16mo, pp. 330. Price $1.50 ; or special edition, thinner covers, price $1.00. 

This is altogether the best ITistory of Education. " With the suggestion 
that study should he made interesting.^^ writes Principal Morgan, of the Rhode 
Island State Normal School, "we most heartily agree. How this may be 
done, the attentive reader will be helped in learning by the study of this 
admira1)le book." 

2. Lectures on Teaching. By J, G. Fitch. New Edition with a Preface 
by an American Normal Teacher. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 393. Price $1.25. 

This forms the proper Basis for pedagogical knowledge, beginning with 
the teacher, the school, and the school-room, and giving the ivhy as well as 
the tohat. We publish in our "School Room Classics" the "Art of Ques- 
tioning," and the "Art of Securing Attention," by the same authoi-, at 15 
•cents eacli. 

' 3. Lectures on the Science and Art of Education. Bv Joseph Payne. 
Cloth, 16mo, pp. 3H4. Price $1.00. 

The student is now ready to take up the /Science of Education, which is 
nowhere else so brilliantly and effectively presented. The lectures are sin- 
gularly fascinating, and the full analysis and indexes in this edition make it 
easy to collate and compare all that the author has uttered upon any topio 
suggested. 

i. The Philosophy of Education, or the Principles and Practice of Teaching. 
By Thomas Tate. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 440, Price $1.50. 

This gives the application of the Science to the Art of Teaching, and is 
♦vithout a rival in its clear presentation and abundant illustrations. The 
tuthor is not content with giving directions. He shows by specimens of 
«!ass-work just what should be done and may be done. 

r>. Tntrodt/ctory Tcxt-Boolc to Scliool Education, Method and School Man- 
tgernent. By John Gill. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 276. Price $1.00. 

This supplements the work of all the rest by practical directions as to 
School Management. Of the five this has had a sale equal to that of all the 
rest combined. The teacher's greatest difficulty, his surest discomfiture if 
he fails, is in the discipline and management of his school. That this man- 
ual lias proved of inestimable help is proved from the fact that the present 
English edition is the 44th thousand printed. 

C, W, BARDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y. 



■TH^ SCHOOL HILLKTIN PUBLICATIONS. 



School Eecords and Reports. 

1. The. BvlUf.in Class Register. Designed by Edward Smith, Superin- 
tendent of Schools, Syracuse, N. Y. Press-board cover. Three Sizes, {a) 6x7, 
for terms of twenty weeks; (6) 5x7, for terms of fourteen weeks. When not 
otherwise specified this size is always sent. Pp. 48. Each 25 cts. (c), like {b) 
but wi th one hal f more (72) pages. Each 35 cts. 

This register gives lines on each of 12 pages for 29 names, and by a nar- 
row /^fl/puts opposite these names blanks for one entry each day for either 
14 or 20 weeks, as desired, with additional lines for summary, examina- 
tions, and remarks. Nothing can be more simple, compact, and neat, where 
it is desired simply to keep a record of attendance, deportment, and class- 
standing. It is used in nearly two-thirds of the union schools of New York. 

S. The Peabody Class Record, No. 1, with 3 blanks to each scholar each 
day for a year. Boards 4}4xQ}4, pp. 100, $1-00. No. 2, with 5 blanks to each 
scholar, 8x11, $1.50. Like No. 1, but gives 3 or 5 blanks each day. 

S. RyaiVs School Record, 112 blanks to a sheet, per dozen sheets, 50 cts. 

h. Keller'' s Monildy Report Card, to be returned with signature of parent 
or guardian, card-board 2^x4, per hundred, $1.00. 

5. BahcocTc's Excelsior Grading Blanks, manilla, 3x5, with blanks on both 
sides. Comprising (a) Report Cards; (b) Grade Certificates for each of 9 
grades; (c) High School Certificate (double size). Price of (a) and {b) $1.00 a 
hundred; of (c) $1.50 a hundred. 

6. Shaiv's Scholar^s Register, for each Week, with Abstract for the Term- 
Paper, 5x7, pp. 16. Per dozen, 50 cts. Each pupil keeps his own record. 

7. Jackson's Class Record Cards. Per set of 90 white and 10 colored 
cards, with hints, 50 cts. Only imjieifect recitations need be marked. 

5. Aids to ScTiool Discipline, containing 80 Certificates, 120 Checks, 200 
Cards, 100 Single and Half Merits. Per box, $1.25. Supplied separately per 
hundred: Half Merits, 15 cts., Cards, 15 cts., Checks, 50 cts., Certificates, 50 cts. 

The use of millions of these Aids, with the unqualified appx-oval of teach- 
ers, parents, and pupils, is assurance that they are doing great good. 

They save time by avoiding the drudgery of Record Keeping and Reports. 

They abolish all notions of "partiality" by determining the pupil's 
standing with mathematical precision. 

They naturally and invariably awaken a lively paternal interest, for the 
pupil takes home with him the witness of his daily conduct and progress. 

They are neat in design, printed in bright colors. The Certificates are 

prizes which children will cherish. The Single Merits and Half Merits are 
printed on heavy card board, the Cards and Checks on heavy paper, and both 
may be used many times— hence the system is cheap, as well as more at- 
tractive than any other to young children. 

9. Mottoes for the School-Room. By A. W. Edson, State Agent of Massa- 
chusetts. Per set of 12 on heavy colored card-board 7x4 inches, printed oa 
both sides, $1.00, post-paid, $1.10. 

These mottoes are " Never too Late," " Above all, be Useful," " Dare to 
Say No," " God Bless our School," "Avoid Anger," "Be Good, Do Good," 
" Think, Speak, Act the Truth," "Fear to Do Wrong," "Misspent Time is 
Lost Forever," "Speak the Truth," " Act Well Your Part," "Strive to Ex- 
cel," "Try, Try Again," "Be Diligent, Prompt, and Useful," "Think Good 
Thoughts," " Learn to Study," "Before Pleasure Comes Duty," "Think 
First of Others," "Dare to Do Right," "Order is Heaven's First Law," "A 
Will Makes a Way," "Study to Learn," "Hold Fast to Honor," "God 
Sees Me." (12) 

C. W. BAKDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y. 



■THE SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATIONS. 



Official Question Books. 

1. The Neiv York State Examination Questions from the beginning to 
the present date. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 274, 50 cts. 

These annual examinations, only by which can State Certificates be ob- 
tained in New York, have a reputation all over the countiy for excellence 
and comprehensiveness. The subjects are as follows : 

Arithmetic, Grammar, Physics, Geo^aphy, 

Book-Keeping, Composition, Chemistry, Civil Government, 

Algebra, Rhetoric, Geology, Astronomy, 

Geometry, Literature, Botany, Methods, 

Drawing, History, ZoOlogy, School Economy. 

Penmanship, Latin, Physiology, School Law. 

No answers are published, except in the following special volume. 

2. Dime (Question Book on Book-Keeping, containing all the questions in 
tiiat subject given at the first 15 New York Examinations for State Certifi- 
cates, xoithfull Answers, Solutions, and Fortns. Paper, 16mo, pp. 31, 10 cts. 

3. The Uniform Examination Questi07iS. By voluntary adoption of the 
113 School-Commissioners of the State of New York, certificates are now 
given only on examinations held under these questions^ which are issued 
sealed from the State Department. They are published m the School BuUe- 
tin of the following dates, tvit/i Complete Official Ansivers; price of each, 
10 cts. 

June, 1888, School Law, 34 Questions and Answers. 
July, 1888, Arithmetic, 167 " " " 

Aug., 1888, Geography, 3a5 " " " 

Oct., 1888, Grammar, 328 

Nov., 1888, Physiology, 250 " " " 

Dec, 1888, Am. Histojy, 301 

A. The Civil Service Question Book. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 282, $1.50, 

42,000 places are now filled exclusively by appointments dependent on 
examinations. No favoritism is possible. You do not need the influence of 
Congressman or of politician. You have only to learn when the next ex- 
amination is held, apply for the necessary papei-s, present yourself, and 
answer the questions asked. The appointments are made from those who 
stand highest, and are open to women as well as to men. All the particu- 
lars as to these examinations, the places and dates where held, and how to 
apply, are here given with 94.3 specimen questions in A7Wimetic, 575 specimen 
(juestions in Geography, 400 specimen questions in English Syntax, 100 each 
in American H'ts'to^nj and Civil Govei'nment, vnth full treatises on Book-Keep- 
ing and on Letter-WHting. To prepare for competition for places at $1,000 
and higher these subjects and these only are i-equired. Any one who can 
answer the questions here given, to all of which full and complete answers are 
added, is ready to enter the next examination. 

Hon John B. Riley, Chief Examiner, State of New York, July 10, 1888, 
says : " I am pleased with your Civil Service Question Book. It will not only 
be of service to those intending to try the Civil Service examinations, but 
teachers or others who are obliged to prepare questions for examinations in 
the common English branches will find it a great convenience." 

The N. E. Journal of Education says, Aug. 23, 1888 : " It is rarely that any 
book can be found with so many valuable and so few unimportant questions." 

OTHER QUESTION BOOKS. 

5. The Common School Question Book. By Asa L. Ckaig. Cloth, 12mo, 
W). 340. $1.50. Shaw's National Question Book, pp. 351, $1.50 : Stillwell's 
Practical Question Book, pp. 400, $1-50 'Brown's Comnuyn School Examines, 
pp. 371, SLOO ; Thompson's Teacher's Examiner, pp. SiB, $1.50 ; Shereill's 
Normal Question Book, pp. 400, $1.50. 

C. W. BARDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y. 



I^E SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATIONS.- 



Maps, Charts and Globes. 

1. Johnston s Wall Maps Tliese are of three sizes, 27x33 inches, costing 
$2.50 each; 40x48i costing $5.00 each; and 63x72, costing $10.00 each. 

The Common School Series includes {a) Hemispheres, (&) North America, 
(c) Soutli America , (rf)United States, {e) Europe, (/) Asia, {g) Africa. Others 
sometimes substituted or added are {h) World, Mercator's Projection, (i> 
Eastern Ilemiphere, (^•) Western Hemisphere. 

We can furnish also in the 40x48 size: {D England, (jn) France, {n) Italy, 
(o) Spain, (;?) Central America, iq) Orbis Veteribus Notus, (r) Italia Antiqua, 
is) Grsecia .Intiqua, (0 Asia Minor, 00 Orbis Romanus, {w) De Bello Gallico,. 
(«) Canaan and Palestine, (y) Bible Countries, {z) United States, historical, 
showing at a glance when and whence each portion of its territory was de- 
rived—a very valuable map in history classes. 

All these maps are engraved on copper, and printed in permanent oil 
colors. All are cloth-mounted, on roUers. Spring rollers are added at an 
extra cost of $1,00, $1.50, and $2.50 respectively. 

We offer a special consignment of T. Ruddiman Johnston's maps 40x48, 

in sets only, including Hemispheres, North America, South America, United 

States, political. United States, historical, Europe, Asia, and Africa, 8 maps, 

regular price $40,00, at $15.00 per set. They were prepared for a firm in tlie 

west who have been obliged to discontinue the business, and were sent to^ 

as by the Johnston Co. with instruction to close them out at once. Henc<i 

the unparallellcd price, which applies ®nly to this 100 sets, 

3. Bulletin Map of the United States. Paper, on rollers, 3J^x5 ft., with 
Blanchard's chart of the United States History upon the back. ~$3.00. 

This is colored both by States and by Counties and gives correctly the 

new time lines. 

t^ Map of Next) YwTc State, colored both by Counties and by Towns,. 
2J^x3 ft. on rollers. Paper, $1.00; Cloth, $2.00. 

5. Adams's Large Map of New 2 a*^i /S^a^e, 61x60 inches. Cloth, on rollers, 
$10.00; on spring rollers, $12.00. We ire now the sole proprietors of this, 
latest and best map, and can hereafter fill all orders promptly. 

6. Dissected Map of New York, si en into Counties. 75 cts, 

7. Dissected Map of the United St ales, seiwn into States. 75 cts. 

8. Chart of Life Series of Physic ktgy Charts, 23x27 inches, four in num- 
ber, including one to show the effec is of alcohol on the system. These show 
every orgiin, life-size and m 2)lace. F er set, $10.00; on spring roller^*, $12.50, 

9. EckharCs Anatomical Chart i, consisting of 12 double plates, "svith 
more than 100 distinct and separate figures. Per set, $15.00. 

10. Heading Charts of all kinds. Appleton's, $12.50; Monroe's Complete^ 
$10.00. Monroe's Abridged, $6.00, efc. 

The School Bulletin Globe. Whi? e we keep_ a dozen styles always in stock, 
we recommend this especially bees ase: 1. It is 12 or 6 inches in diameter. 2. 
It has a low and heavy Bronzed Iron Frame. Its axis is ad.iustable. 4. 
It shows an entire Hemisphere. 5. Its Meridian is movable. 6, Its map is 
Johnston's. 7. It is shipped to anj address at Fifteen Dollars for a 12-incb 
or Five Dollars for 6-inch size. 8. £very Globe is guaranteed to be abso 

LCTELY PERFECT (14) 

C. W. BARDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y. 



-THE SCHOOIi BUIil^ETIN PUBI.ICATIONS. 



Blackboard Material. 

No feature of the school-room is of more vital importance to the health 
of scholai's and teachers than the Blackboard. If it be pvay or greasy the 
amount of chalk used fills the air with dust, which produces catarrhal and 
bronchial difficulties, and yet makes so faint a mark that the children's 
eyes are penuanently injured. Choice should be made among the following 
materials. 

1. Solid Slate. This is durable, but costs from SO to 50 cts. a square foot, 
is noisy, not black enough in color, and unhealthful because there is com- 
monly used upon it the softest crayon. Where solid slate is already in, we 
recommend the Slate Pencil Crayon, as the only preventive of serious disease. 

But it is better to put either upon the plastered wall, or upon the wall 
covered witli manilla paper, or upon wooden boards, one of the following 
preparations. 

S. Agalite Slating. This is the cheapest of all, may be sent by mail, and 
usually gives fair satisfaction. Price, post-jiaid., for box to cover 400 feet, 
one coat, $6.00; 200 feet, $8 25; 100 feet, $1.75; 50 feet, $1.00. We furnish the 
lilojck, Uiamond or Silicate Slating at the same price, but it can be sent only 
by express. 

S. Slate Pencil Slating. This remarkable preparation does away alto- 
frether v/itli chalk-dust, having sufQcient grit to take a distinct mark from a 
slate-pencil. Soft crayon should never be vsed upon it, unless it is first rubbed 
down to smoother surface. It is a pure alcohol slating, and therefore dura- 
])!e. Price per gallon, covering 600 ft., one coat, $10.00; quarts, $3.75; pints 
$1.50. 

In many schools using the Slate Pencil Slating, the State Normal at 
Potsdam, for instance, Paber's slate-pencils have taken the place of crayon. 
In other schools hard crayon, like Alpha H, is used. 

h. Ilornsfone Slating. This is new, and altogether the best in the market, 
making a really stone surface which is yet absolutely black. There is no 
waste Of chalk, even with soft crayon, while the Alpha H produces a 
beautifully clear mark. It contains no oil or grease, and grows harder with 
age. It is put on with a paint-brush, and adheres to amy material, so that 
it may be put on walls, boards, paper, or any other smooth surface. Price 
$8.00per gallon, covering 200 feet with four coats. It is somewhat expen- 
sive, and must be put on with care; but when properly finished it is a delight 
to the eye. 

Sup't Smith, of Syi'acuse, says: "Your Ilornstone Slating is now in use 
in four of our buildings, and I have no hesitation in saying that it is superior 
to solid slate or to any other blackboard surf ace I ever saw. "—Principal 
Miner, of Skaneateles, says: " Its very smooth surface saves crayon and les- 
sens the amount of chalk-dust in the room — I do not hesitate to say that 
it is the best board I ever used." 

Chfr,e}/''s Dvstless Erasers work well on any of the boards named. 
I*rice 10 cts. each, $1.00 a dozen. The School Bulletin Erasers are made of 
the closest and best felt, and are very durable. Price 15 cts. each, $1.50 a 
dozen. Specimen of either by mail for 15 cts. Alpha Craijon, M or H, 75 
cts. a box. Ordinary White Crayon, 15 cts. a box. Colored Crayon, 75 cts. a 
tos. Slate Pencil Crayon, for solid shite, 50 cts. a box. (1~J) 

C. W. 15AKDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y. 



■ THE SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATIONS.- 



Arithmetic by the Grube Method. 

1. First Steps among Figures. A drill book in the Fundamental Rules 
of Arithmetic. By Levi N. Beebe. Cloth, 16mo, 3 editions. PiipUn'' Edi- 
tion, pp. 140, 45 cts. Oral Edition, pp. 139, 50 cts. Teachers'' Edition, includ- 
ing aU in both the others, with additional parallel matter, Index, and Key, 
pp. 326, $1.00. 

These books give the only practical exposition of the Grube Method, now 
generally admitted to produce the best results with beginners. It has been 
used ten years in the primai-y schools of such cities as Norwich, Conn., and 
Auburn, N. Y., and for many years every student in the Albany State Normal 
School has been directed to purchase a copy to take with him for his subse- 
quent use in teaching. 

From a multitude of testimonials we copy the following : 

" We are still successfully using Beebe's First Steps. It has many admi- 
rable qualities."— >S'wjL>'< N. L. Bishop, Norwich, Conn. 

" I think it especially excellent for a system of gi'aded schools, where 
uniformity of teaching is essential. It develops in practical shape an idea 
that I have long sustained as to the proper method of teaching arithmetic." 
Sup^t B. B. Snow, Aubmm, N. Y. 

" I have recommended Beebe's First Steps as the best work in primary 
arithmetic. . . . The book is received with much favor, and iswery helpful 
to me in my work.'"— Prof. A. N. Husted, State Normal School, Albany, N. Y. 

"I am much pleased with the book, and wish every primary teacher to 
have a copy,"— *S'W2>7 J. M, Frost, Hudson, N. Y. 

"By vote of the Board of Education a copy of the Teachers' Edition 
was placed on the desk of every primary teacher in the city.— Siip't Edward 
Smith, Syracuse, N. Y. 

" I consider Beebe's First Steps the best work of the kind that I have 
ever seen, and I take every opportunity to recommend it."— J/ary L. Sutliff, 
Haiku, Maui, Hawaian Islands, Feb. 9, 1888. 

2 The Pestalozzian Series of ArWmietics. Teachers' Manual and First- 
Year Text-Book for pupils in the first grade. Based upon Pestalozzi's 
method of teaching Elementary Number. By James H. Hoose. Boards, 
16mo, 2 editions. PuinW Edition, pp. 156, 35 cts. Teacher's Edition, contain- 
ing the foimer, with additional matter, pp. 217, 50 cts. 

This is a practical exposition of the Pestalozzian Method, and has met with 
great success not only in the Cortland Nonnal School, where it was first 
developed, but in many other leading schools, as at Gloversville, Babylon, 
etc. It is diametrically opposed to the Grube Method, and good teachers 
should be familiar with both, that they may choose intelligently between 
them. 

3. Lessons in Number, as given in a Pestalozzian School, Cheam Surrey. 
The Master's Manual By C. Reinek. 16mo, pp. 224. $1.50. 

This work was prepared in 1835 under the supervision of Dr. C Mayo in 
the first English Pestalozzian school, and has particular value as represent- 
ing directly the educational methods of the great reformer. 

C. W. BARDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y. 



■THE SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATIONS. 



Useful Appliances in Arithmetic. 

1. The Word Method in Number. A series of 45 Cards, on which ar« 
printed all the possible Combinations of Two Figures. In box. By H. R. 
Sanford, Institute Canductor. Size 334 x 6 inches. Price 50 cts. 

These cards need only to be seen, as the principle is familiar and ac- 
cepted. Tlie type, in iviitten figures, is large enough to be seen across the 
room, and the combination on one side is given in reversed order on the 
other, so that as the teacher holds the card before him he knows the figures 
presented to the class. The pupil is taught to look upon the combination 
4-f-9 as itMf 13, not as "4 and 9 are 13," just as he looks upoa DOG as an 
entire word, not as D-O-G. Success is certain if new combinations are in- 
troduced only after those already given are thoroughly learned. Re\iews 
should be constant. 

2. A Fractional Apparatus. By W. W. Davis. A box of eight wooden 
balls, thi-ee and one-half inches in diameter, seven of which are sawn into 
2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, and 12 parts respectively, while the eighth is left a sphere. 
Price $4.00. 

With this apparatus every principle and rule can be developed, and the 
pupils can be led to deduce rules for themselves. 

Many other expedients are resorted to, but they are all objectionable. 
Suppose a teacher takes a stick and breaks it in the middle, will the pupil 
perceive two halves of a stick or two sticks? In teaching fractions object- 
ively, that should be taken for unity from which if a part is taken unity is 
destroyed. This is not the case with a stick or cube. Apples are objection- 
able for three reasons ; first because they cannot always be obtained ; sec- 
ond because they are perishable ; and third, because the attention of the 
pupils is diverted by a desire to know whether they are sweet or sour, etc. 
Nor can the teacher readily saw wooden balls into divisions even enough for 
the purpose designed, the charm of this method being the exact presentation 
to the pupil's eye of the fact illustrated. 

S. A Manual of Suggestions for Teaching Fractions especially designed 
for accompanying the above apparatus. By W. W. Davis. Paper, 12mo, 
pp. 43. 25 cts. 

This accompanying manual gives probably the best arrangement of the 
subject into sixty lessons ever made, with practical suggestions which all 
teachers will find valuable. 

h. Cube Boot Blocks, caiTied to Three Places. In box. $1.00. 

Our blocks are unusually large, the inner cube being two inches, and tha 
additions each one-half inch wide. 

5. Numeral Frame, with 100 balls, $1.25 ; with 144 baUs, $1.50. 

"Initiate children to arithmetic by means of the ball fr tine alone, there 
by making their elementary instruction a simple and natmal extension of 
their own daily observation," says Laurie, in his standard book on Pnm.ary 
Instruction (p. 112), and as he leaves the subject of arithmetic, he adds this 
note (p. 117), as if in fear he had not been sufficiently emphatic : 

" The teaching of arithmetic should be begun earlier than is customaiy, 
^wwi alivaijs with the ball frame.'" 

C. W. BAKDE.EN, Publisher, Syracuse, IT. Y. 



THE SCHOOL BULLETIN PUBLICATIONS. 



Helps in Teaching History. 

1. A Thousand Questions in American History. 16mo, cloth, pp. 347. 
Price $1.00. 

This work has been prepared by an eminent teacher for use in his own 
school— one of the largest in the State. It shows rare breadth of view and 
discrimination, dealing not merely with events but with causes, and with the 
side-issues that have so much to do with determining the destiny of a nation. 

2. Helps in Fixing the Facts of Atnef'ican Histoi'y. By Henry C. Nob- 
THAM. 16mo, cloth, pp. 298. Pilce $1.00. ,- ' ^ 

Here all facts are presented in groups. The , L— exlngton. ^ 

tey-word to the Revolution, for instance, is I— ndependence. s^^ 

LIBERTY, as shown in the accompanying table B— urgoyne's Surrender.' 

of Key-Words ; and in like manner the events of E— vacuation. 

the late civil war are kept chronologically dis- R— etribution. > 

tinct by the key-words SLAVES FREED. Chart T— reason. «r 

No. 1 indicates by stars the years in each decade Y— orktown. \ 

from 1-192 to 1789, in which the most remarkable events occured, while tho 

colored chart No. 2 arranges the events in twelve groups. 

— ^^ -^ 

3. Topics and Beferences in AmeHcan History, with numerous»Searck 
Questions. By Geo. A. Williams. 16mo, leatherette, pp. 50. .50 cts. 

This is a book of immediate practical value to every teacher. The refer- 
ences are largely to the lighter and more interesting illustrations of history, 
of a kind to arouse the thought of pupils by giving vivid conceptions of the 
events narrated. By dividing these references among the members of a class, 
the history recitation may be made the most delightful of the day. 

A. Di7tw Question Books, No. 5, General Histo7^y, and No. 6, United States 
Histoid and Civil Government. By Albert P. Southwick. 16mo, paper, pp. 
37, 32. 10 cts. each. 

5. Outline<i and Questions in United States History. By C. B. Van Wie. 
J6mo, paper, pp. 40, and folding Map. 15 cts. 

The outgrowth of four years' practical work in the school-room with 

map prepared by a pupil as a suggestive model. 

6. Tablet of American History, with Map of the United States on the 
back. By Rurus Blanchard. Hea\T paper, mounted on rollers, S}4 by 5 
feet. Price, express paid, $3.00. 

The demand for a colored chart to hang upon the wall and thus catch 
the often-lifted eye of the pupil, has led to the preparation of this chart by 
an experienced author. The events of the four centuries are grouped in 
parallel belts of different colors, and upon the corners and sides ai-e names 
of the States and Territories, with their etymology, etc., history of political 
parties, portraits of all the Presidents, Coats of Arras of all the States, ete. 
The map is engraved expressly for tliis chart by Rand & McNally, is colored 
both by States and by counties, and gives all the latest railroads, the new ar- 
rangement of time-lines, showing where the hour changes, etc. 

C. TV, BARDEEX, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y. 



• THE S GEO OL B UT^LE Tiy PUB L IC'A TTONS. 



Music in the School Eoom. 

1. The Song Budget. A collections of Songs and Music for Educational 
Gatherings. By E. V. De Graff. Small 4to, paper, pp. 76. 15 cts. 

This book owes its popularity to two causes : 

(1) It gives a great deal for the money. 

(2) The songs are not only numerous (107), but they are the standard favor- 
Ues of the lant fifty years. 

This is why the book contains more music that will be used than any other 
book published. For in all other books that we know of, two-thirds of the 
tunes are written by the compilers, who are of course partial to their own 
productions. Sup't De Graff wrote no songs of his own, but gathered those 
which }\is long experience as a conductor of teachers' institutes had shown 
him to be the most generally familiar and pleasing. 

In fact, the success of this book has been due to the fact that only those 
songs were admitted that have proved to be universal favorites. This in- 
volved a lai'ge original outlay, as much as fifty dollars having been paid for 
the right to use a single song. But the best were taken, wherever they 
could be found and at whatever cost, and the result is a school singing-book 
of popularity unexampled. For instance, a single firm in Cleveland, Ohio, 
J. 11. Holcomb «fc Co., had purchased of us up to Feb. 15, 1888, no less than 
9730 copies, 4500 within the last six months, besides 2100 of the School Room 
Chorus. 

2. The School Room Chorus. A collection of Two Hundi-ed Songs for 
Public and Private Schools, compiled by E. Y. De Graff. Small, 4to, boards, 
pp. 148. 35 cts. 

This is an enlarged edition of the Song Budget, with twice the luimber 
of songs. Tlie plates of the last edition are so arranged that it is identical 
with the Song Budget as far as page 68, so that both books can be used to- 
gether. The Budget and CJwrus are particularly adapted for Teachers' Asso- 
<iations and Institutes. At these prices every meeting of teachers can be sup- 
plied with one or the other, while the fact that the tunes are standard 
favorites makes it easy for any audience to join in the singing at sight 

3. The Diadem of School Songs : containing Songs and Music for all 
grades of Schools, a nev/ system of Instruction in the elements of Music, 
and a Manual of Directions for the use of Teachers. By Wm. Tillinghast. 
Small, 4to, boards, pp. 160. 50 cts. 

This book, of which Dr. French, the veteran institute-instructor was 
■ associate autlior, gives an exceedingly simple and practical system of in- 
struction, as well as a valuable collection of songs. 

A. Half a Hundred Songs, for the School-Room and Home. By IIattie 
S. Russell. IBmo, boards, pp. 103. 35 cts. 

These songs are all original, but without music. 

;". The S'-hool Vocalist ; containing a thorough system of elementary 
instruction in Vocal ]Music, with Practical Exercises, Songs, Hymns, Chants. 
&c., adapted to the use of Schools and Academies. By E. Locke, and S. 
NouRSB." Oblong, boards, pp. 160. Price 50 cts. 

6. The School Melodist. A Song Book for School and Home. By E. 
Locke and S. Nourse. Oblong, boards, pp. 160. Price 50 cts. 

7. The Song Life, for Sunday Schools, etc., illustrating in song the 
journey of Christiaiia and her children to the Celestial City. Small 4to 
boards, pp. 176. Price 50 cts. 

Nos 5, 6, and 7 are books that have had their day, but of which we have 
a few hundred copies of each on hand. These we will sell at 10 cts. each ; 
if to go by mail, 6 cts. each extra. They contain much good music. 

C. W. BARDEEX, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y. 



THE SCHOOL BULLETIN PDBLICATIONS. 



Meiklejolm (J, M. D.) The New Education. 16mo, pp. 35 15 

Maps* for the Wall. New York State, 2^4 x 3 feet. Paper, $1.00. Cloth 2 (Xl 

The Same, 68x7i inches, cloth 10 00 

United States, colored by States and counties, SY^xb feet, with Chart 3 00 

-fHemispJieres, N. Am., S. Am., Europe. Asia, Africa, U. S. PolUical,lF, S. 

Historical, (Johnston's) 40x48, cloth, each 5 00 

Dissected M aps. Uuiied States sawn into States 75 

The same, New York State sawn into Counties 75 

Michael (O. S.) Algebrafor Beginners. Cloth, lOmo, pp. 120 75 

Miller (Warner.) Education as a Dep't of Government. Paper, 8vo, pp. 12. 15 

Mills (C. D. B.) The Tree of Mythology. Cloth, 8vo, Pp.281 ." 3 00 

Milton (John) A Small Tractate of Education. Paper, Irtino, pp. 26 15 

Mottoes for the School Kootu. Per set of 24, 12 cards, 7x14 1 00 

Natural History of the State of New York. 26 volumes 4to. 

f Reports on the Cabinet of Natural History 35 volumes, 8vo, and.4to. 

Write for information as to the above. 

'New YovU State Examination Questions. Oloth, 16mo, pp. 256 50 

I'ke Questions in Book-Keeping, ivith Answers. Pai)er, 16mo, pp . 31 10 

Northam (Henry C.) Civil Govirnment. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 185 75 

Fixing the Facts of American History. Cloth, 12nio, pp. 300 75 

Conversational Lessons Leading to Geography, lomo, pp. 39 25 

Northend (Chas.) Memory Selections. Three series. Each 25 

Northrop (B. G.) High Schools. Paper.Bvo, pp. 26 25 

Northrup (A- J.) Camps and Tramps in the Adirondacks. 16mo, pp. 302. 

Paper, .50 cents ; in Cloth 1 25 

Number I^esson3. On card -board, 7x11, after the Grube Method 10 

Papers on School Issues of the Day. 8 numbers, each 15 

Payne (Joseph.) Lectures on the Art of Education. Cloth, IBmo, pp. 281.. 1 00 

Pardon (Emma L.) 07'al Instruction in (Geography. Paper, 16mo, pp. 29 15 

Payne (W. II.) A Short History of Education. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 105.... 50 

Pedagogical Biogfraphy. 16mo, paper, each 15 

1. The Jesuits, Ascham, Montaiaine, Ratich, Milton. 
II. John Ainos Comenius. III. John Locke. 

IV. Jean Jacques Rousseau. V. John Bernard Basedow. 

VI. Joseph Jacotot. VII. John Henry Pestalozzi. 

Perez (B.) The First Three Years of Childhood. With an introduction by 

Prof. Sully. Cloth, 12ino. pp.294 150 

Periodicals. The School Bulletin. Monthly, 16 pp., 10x14. Per year 100 

BoundVols. I-XIV. Cloth, 200pp., each 2 00 

The School Room. Bound volumes I-V. Each 1 50 

Phillips (Philip.) Song Life. Oblong, boards, pp. 176 50 

Pooler (Chas. T.) Chart of Civil Government. Cloth 25 

The Same, in sheets 12x18, per hundred 5 00 

Hints on Teaching Orthoepy. Paper, 12mo, pp. 15 10 

¥ostageSta,inj) Photographs. Taken from photograph of any size. Per 100. 1 50 

Quick (R. II.) Essays on Educational Reformers. Cloth, 12mo, pp., 331 1 50 

* Regents' Examination Paper. Six styles. Per ream, .f;l. 75 to 2 50 

Regents' Examination Record. Cards, per hundred 50 

The same on sheets 5 to page, 72 pages for 720 scholars, bound 2 50 

The same on sheet 5 to page, 144 pages for 1440 scholars, bound 3 00 

Regents' Examination Syllabus, in IJ. S, History. Paper, per dozen,.. 50 
Regents' Questions. To June, 1882. (No later are printed). Eleven Editions. 

1. Complete with Key. The Regents' Questions from the first exam- 
ination in 1866. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 476 2 00 

2. Complete. Tlie same as the above but without the answers. Pp. 333. 1 00 
%. Arithmetic. The 1,293 questions in Arithmetic. Pp.93 25 

4. Key to Arithmetic, Anawers to the a.hove. Manilla, 16mo, pp. 20 25 

5. Thousand Regents' Questions in Arithmetic. Card-board 1 00 

a. Geography, The 1,987 questions in Geography. Pp.70 25 

7. Kc}/ to Geography. Answers to the above. Manilla, l6mo, pp. 36 25 

8. Grammar. The 2,976 questions in Grammar. Manilla, 16mo, pp. 109 25 

9. Grammar and Key. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 198 1 00 

n. Key to Grammar. Manilla, 16mo, pp. 88 25 

10. Spelling. The 4,800 words given in Spelling. Manilla, 16mo, pp. 61 . 25 

Richardson (B. W.) Learning and Health. Paper. IBmo. pp. 39 15 

Roe (Martha.) A Work in Number. Oloth, 12mo, pp. 160 50 ' 

Roget (P.M.) Thesaurus of English Words and Phrases. CL, 12mo, pp. 800 2 00 

Ryan (G. W.) School Record. 56 blanks on each of 14 sheets 50 

Sanford (H, R.) The Word Method in Number. Per box of 45 cards. 50 



C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER, SYRACUSE, N. Y. 



School Room Classics. 11 vols. Paper, 16ino, pp. about 40 15 



I. Huntington's Unconscious Tuition. 
II. Fitch's Art of Questioning. 

III. Kennedy's Philosophy of School 

Discipline. 

IV. Fitch's Art of Securing Attention. 
V. Richardson's Learning and Health. 

VI. Meikeljohn's New Education. 



VII. Milton's Tractate of Education. 
VIII. Von Buelow's <Sc/jooZ Workshop. 
IX. Maudsley's Sex in 31ind and in 

Education. 
X. Education. asViewed hy ThiiiTcers. 
XI. Harris's How to Teach Natural 
Science in the Public Schools. 



Shaw's Scholar's Register, Paper, 5x7, pp. 16. Per dozen 50 

Sheely (Aaron) Anecdotes and Humors of Sclwol Life. Cloth, 12mo, pp. 350 1 50 

Sherrill (J. E.) T//6 Normal Question 'Book. Cloth. 12nio, pp. 405 1 59 

Shirreff (Em!!y). The Kindergarten System. Cloth. 12mo, pp.200 1 00 

*Slate ^etmilfilackhoard Slating. Gallons, covering 600 ft., one coat 10 00 

Slated Paper, per square yard (if by mail. 60 cts) 50 

Smith (C.F.) Honorary Degrees as conferred in American Colleges. Paper, 

8vo, pp. 9 15 

Song Century, The. One Hundred Standard Songs for School and Home. 

16tno, })p. 04. (Companion to the jSona Ui/df/eO 15 

Sornberger (S. J.) Normal Language Lessons, Boards, 16nio, pp. 75 50 

Southwick (A. P.) Twenty Dime Question Books, with full answers, notes, 

queries, etc. Paper, l6mo, pp. about 40. Each 10 



Elemeatary Series. 
ii. Physiology. 
4. Theorv and Practice. 
R. U. S. History and Civil Gov't. 
10. Algebra. 

13. American Litei*ature, 

14. Grammar. 

15. Orthography and Etymology 

18. Arithmetic. 

19. Physical and Political Geog. 
iiO. Reading au I Puncluation. 



Advanced Series. 

1. Physics. 

2. General I^iterature. 
5. General History. 

7. Astronomy. 

8. Mythology. 

9. Rhetoric. 

11. Botany. 

12. Zoology. 

16. Chemistry. 

17. Geology. 



The 10 in one book, cloth, $1.00. The 10 in one book, cloth, $1.00. 

Extra Numhers 21. Temperance Physiology; 22. Book-Keeping; 23. 

Letter- Writing . Each , 10 

Quizzism. Quirks and Quibbles from Queer Quarters. 16mo, pp. 25 25 

- —A Quiz Book of TJieory and Practice. Cloth, 12mo, pp . 220 1 00 

Starkweather (Asher) A7i Aid to English Grammar. 16nio, pp. 216 75 

Stowell (T. B.) Syllabus of Lectures on Physiology. Boards, 8vo, pp. 133.. 1 00 

Straight (H. H.) Aspects of ind^lstrial Education. Paper, 8vo, pp.12 15 

Swett (John) Manual of Elocution. Cloth, 12mo, pp. 300, net. 1 50 

Tate (Thos.) The Philosophy of Education. Cloth, 12mo, pp. 330 1 50 

Taylor (H. F.) Union School Record Cards 5x8 inches. Per hundred 2 00 

Thomas (Flavel S.) University Degrees. Paper, 16mo, pp. 40 15 

Thompson (D'Arcy W.) Day Dreams of a Schoolmaster. 16mo,pp. 328. .. 125 

Thousand Questions in U. S. History. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 200 1 00 

Tillinghast (Wm.) The Diadem of School Songs. Boards, 4to, pp. 160. ... 50 

Underwood (L. M.) Systematic Plant Record. Manilla, 7x8^4 pp. 52 gO 

Uniform Ii^xamination Questions, New York. All Questions from the 
beginning to March 1889, are published as follows : 

I. Arithmetic, 317 Questions, 10 cents. IT. Key, 10 cents. 

III. Geographv, 709 " ♦' IV. " " 

V. Grammar. 5.33 " " VI. " " 

VII. U. S. Historv, 429 " " VIII. " 

IX. Civil Government 354 " " X. " 

XI. Physiology. 345 " " XII. " " 

Valentine (S. Louise.) Numhers Made Easy. In box, with Key 50 

Van Wie (C. B.) Outlines in U. S. History. Paper, 16mo,pp. 40 and map 15 
Welch (Emma A.) Intermediate Arithmetic Problems. Cloth, l6mo, pp. 172 75 

Key to tlie above, Cloth, 16nio. pn. 30 50 

Wells (C. R.) Tmprored Practical Methods in Penmanship. Nos. 1-4, Each.. . 10 

A Lesson on Arm Movement in Writing. Paper, 8vo, pp. 32 25 

Williams (Geo. A.) Topics in American History. Cloth, 16mo, pp. 50 50 

Any of the above not starred sent post-paid on receipt of the price. 

C. W. BARDEEN, Publisher, Syracuse, N. Y. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS % 



019 821 932 



